FORUM DI EPISTEME
Maxwell's sea of molecular
vortices 1861,
the inspiration for
"The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field"
_____________________________________________________________
4 - Frederick
David Tombe
sirius184@hotmail.com
- - - - -
The following 1st July 2010 revision of "The Double
Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field" summarizes all the most important
issues that have been covered in the various revisions since the
original paper of 15th February 2006.
Abstract.
In 1856, Wilhelm
Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed an experiment
with a Leyden Jar which showed that the ratio of the quantity
of electricity when measured statically, to the same quantity
of electricity when measured electrodynamically, is numerically
equal to the directly measured speed of light. In 1861, in
his paper entitled ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, James Clerk-Maxwell
equated the above ratio with the ratio of the dielectric constant
to the magnetic permeability. In the same paper, Maxwell modeled
Faraday’s magnetic lines of force using a sea of molecular vortices
that were composed partly of aether and partly of ordinary
matter. He linked the dielectric constant to the transverse elasticity
of this vortex sea, and he linked the magnetic permeability to
the density. Since Newton’s equation for the speed of sound involves
the ratio of the transverse elasticity to the density, Maxwell
was able to use Weber’s constant to show that light is a wave
in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.
It will now be suggested that Maxwell’s molecular vortices are
more accurately represented with rotating electron-positron dipoles
that are aligned in a double helix fashion with their mutual rotation
axes tracing out the magnetic lines of force.
May 2016 - A new version of the previous
paper:
Abstract.
The historical linkage between optics and electromagnetism can
be traced back to a paper published in the year 1856 by Wilhelm Eduard
Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. By discharging a Leyden Jar (a capacitor),
they showed that the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units
of charge is numerically equal to the directly measured speed of light.
Weber interpreted this result as meaning that the speed of light is a kind
of escape velocity for electricity in motion, such as would enable the associated
magnetic force to overcome the electrostatic force. An alternative interpretation
was advanced a few years later by James Clerk-Maxwell who connected the
result to the elasticity in an all pervading solid medium that serves
as the carrier of light waves. As a consequence, he concluded that light
waves are electromagnetic undulations. These two perspectives can be reconciled
by linking the speed of light to the circumferential speed of the molecular
vortices which Maxwell believed to be the constituent particles of the
solid luminiferous medium. If we consider these molecular vortices to be
tiny electric current circulations, magnetic repulsion can then be explained
in terms of centrifugal force. And if these molecular vortices should take
the form of an electron and a positron in mutual orbit, we can then also
explain magnetic attraction in terms of the more fundamental electrostatic
force being channeled through space along double helix chains that constitute
magnetic lines of force.
* * * * *
B - Gravitation,
Electrostatics, and the Electron-Positron
Aether (Ether)
(Based on the 1982 paper
by David Tombe, entitled "Electrogravitomagnetism")
[22nd August 2008 - This paper has been totally withdrawn, for the reason that it centres around a theory
which attempts to rationalize inertial mass as being related
to the sum of the "modulus" of the electric charge in a body.
More recently, I have been working on a different principle as explained
in the paper at N2 entitled "Negative Mass and the Gravity Sink".
The ideas contained in this paper concerning inertial mass were
only peripheral to the main theme regarding an electron-positron
luminiferous medium. These ideas concerning inertial mass have
now been superseded by a new theory which involves absolute values
as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge
.
(We maintain nevertheless a copy of the paper
for history's sake.)
3rd November 2011
- A comment from the author. There is really no important
need to withdraw this paper. I am once again of the opinion,
as was stated in the paper, that mass is a cumulative quantity
based on all the particles in a body. I can add that it is widely
believed, due to a common error in the secondary literature, that
Maxwell conceived of displacement current in connection with the
electric capacitor circuit. In actual fact, Maxwell's original paper
of 1861, part III, indicates that he did not conceive of displacement
current in connection with the electric capacitor circuit. This
paper, based on research done in 1982, perpetrates that common error,
and the author has corrected it in future articles. The author also
now notes that the displacement current term as is used in the derivation
of the electromagnetic wave equation, should be magnetization based,
and not linear polarization based. In other words, it should be a
rotatory effect and not a linear effect.]
23rd January
2011 - This paper has been fully revised, here is in
red a comment from the author (we maintain previous comments
again for history's sake).
- This article was written in 2003 based
on original material from 1982, without any revision of the
core ideas. Research was commenced again in 2004. As a result
of seven further years of investigation, comments have
now been added in red by the author, in order to draw attention
to the revised views in the light of the more recent research. The
first issue concerns the title itself. The electron-positron sea is
not the aether as such. Positrons are aether sources and electrons
are aether sinks. The electrons and positrons are paired in mutual orbits
to form rotating dipoles, and as such the electron-positron medium
for the propagation of light is actually a sea of tiny dipolar aether
whirlpools.
E - Gravity Reversal
and Atomic Bonding
(A Theory
of Mutually Attracting Sinks)
[Note
of the Editor: As far as the following
assertion is concerne
d: «
the
Earth's magnetic field is explained
by virtue of the fact that the Earth
is a rotating negatively charged object»
, the reader could
be interested even in the paper presented
in next point 8.]
(The Epicycle Theory
of the Atom)
(New revised version:
5th August 2008)
I - Charge, Spin,
and 'Charge to Mass' Ratio
(A Unified Theory of
Gravity and Electricity)
22nd
August 2008: This paper has been
totally withdrawn
(together with paper B)
, for the reason that it centres
around a theory which attempts to
rationalize inertial mass as being related
to the sum of the "modulus" of the electric
charge in a body. More recently, I have been
working on a different principle as explained in
the paper at N2 entitled "Negative Mass and the Gravity
Sink".
The ideas
contained in this paper concerning inertial
mass were only peripheral to the main theme regarding
an electron-positron luminiferous medium.
These ideas concerning inertial mass have now
been superseded by a new theory which involves absolute
values as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge,
and the theories concerning
centrifugal force and Coriolis force contained within
this paper have been expanded upon in the paper at Q2
entitled "The Cause of Centrifugal Force"
.
(We
maintain nevertheless a copy of the paper
for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 5th August 2008)
L -
The Aether
and the Electric Sea
(The Link between
Gravity and Electromagnetism)
(New revised version:
18th February 2009)
(New revised version:
5th March 2009)
New revised version:
18th March 2009
( "The amendment changed
a paragraph in the section about inertia")
(New revised version
of L: 2nd June 2009
"Another section
mentioning inertia was removed". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous paper for
history's sake.)
(New revised version
of U': 2nd June 2009
"This was a major
amendment based on the realization that the
Coriolis force is a real transverse force that arises in
connection with the conservation of angular momentum".
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
Y - The Four Kinds of Electric
Charge
(A vitreous electricity
explanation for infinite supplies of
electric charge)
(New revised version:
24th September 2008)
(New revised version: 14th
December 2008)
(New revised version: 2nd
June 2009
"A general re-wording
without any major change in the content".)
A2' - Bernoulli's
Principle and the Theory of Flight
(New revised version of A2: 2nd June 2009
"This was a major
re-write with an increased emphasis on the
role of the centrifugal force in the air molecules". We
maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous paper
for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 18th May 2008)
(New revised version: 18th
February 2009)
H2 - Bernoulli's Principle and
the AC Transformer
(New revised version: 18th
May 2008)
October 2016
- A new version of the previous paper (this new version disregards matters
to do with capacitance as they are a red herring to the main issue: that
charge is something that must flow net into the circuit from
the power source; the idea is that charge is the pressure in an electric
fluid and that Bernoulli's principle in conjunction with conservation of
power is the governing feature in a transformer circuit; the older version
side-tracks too much to the subject of capacitance, and it doesn't sufficiently
emphasize the fact that charge must enter net as like pressurized water into
the water supply network):
Abstract.
The AC transformer is a transducer which converts between
potential energy and kinetic energy. A step-up transformer increases
the voltage and decreases the current while a step-down transformer does
the opposite. Despite the low current, streaks of lightning arc out from
high voltage cross country power cables when earthed objects get too
close. The physical nature of voltage will now be examined.
N2 - Negative Mass and
the Gravity Sink
O2 - The General Convective Force
(A General Survey of
the Coriolis force and the Centrifugal force)
(New revised version:
9th June 2008)
(New revised
version: 19th August 2008
)
P2 -
Centrifugal
Force in the Electric Circuit
(New revised
version: 28th December 2008:
"The focus
was in amending the section on EM induction
in relation to Coriolis Force", see T2 and T2')
(New revised version: 29th
January 2009)
New revised version:
18th March 2009 ("The
wording in the centrifugal force section was improved
to emphasize the extrapolation of the general
principle of centrifugal force to the four body
problem in which two closed orbital systems sit side
by side, and therefore must repel each other
")
P2' -
Centrifugal Force in the Electric Circuit
(New revised version
of P2: 2nd June 2009
"This revision goes into much more detail
on the role of the Coriolis force in the induction
of current in a wire that is moving through a magnetic
field". We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
(New revised
version: 19th August 2008 )
(New revised version:
7th December 2008 )
(New revised version: 5th
March 2009)
Q2' - The Cause of Centrifugal Force
(New revised version of Q2: 2nd June 2009
"This was a major
re-write based on the realization that the
inverse cube law points to a dipole field". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous paper for
history's sake.)
(New revised
version: 28th August 2008 )
(New revised version: 14th
December 2008)
S2 - The Coriolis Force and the Screw
* 30.XI.2011:
This paper has now been withdrawn, but you can still read
it with an author's remark.
T2 -
Areal Velocity, Coriolis Force,
and Vorticity
T2' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New revised version of
T2: 28th December 2008)
"T2' is a major amendment.
I've taken all the contents into what is
effectively a new paper". We maintain nevertheless a copy
of the previous paper for history's sake.
( New revised version:
5th March 2009)
T2'' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New revised version
of T2': 2nd June 2009)
"This was a major
re-write based on a clearer division between
transverse Coriolis force and axial Coriolis force"
. We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the previous paper for history's
sake.
U2 -
Displacement Current
(New revised version: 14th
December 2008)
V2 - Displacement
Current 2
(New revised version:
18th February 2009)
Y2 - Wave/Particle Duality in Electromagnetic
Radiation
Z2 -
Wave/Particle Duality in
Cathode Rays
A3 -
Cathode Rays, Gravity, and Electromagnetic
Radiation
(New revised version: 14th
December 2008)
B3 -
Tangential Force – The Equilibrium
Shifter
(New revised version: 29th
January 2009)
New revised version:
18th March 2009 (" Appendix
B was removed as it was a bit hard to read, and out of
context, and it will be the subject of a separate
paper some time in the future
")
B3' -
Lenz's Law
(New revised version
of B3: 5th November 2009
This is
a major re-write of the previous paper, we maintain
nevertheless a copy of the older one for history's sake.)
C3 - The Key
that Winds up the Universe
New revised version:
18th March 2009 (" Large, somewhat
confusing sections on 'inertia' were removed. A new
paper on inertia will be written some time in
the future")
D3
-
Electromagnetism
and the Rolling Wheel
E3 - The Superimposition of Radiation
and Gravity
New revised version:
5th March 2009
F3 - The Rotationally Elastic Sponge
G3 - Kepler's Law of Areal Velocity in
Cyclones
H3 -
Inertia
and the Electric Sea
I3 -
The Coriolis
Force is a System of Accountancy for Real Forces
J3 -
The Physical Nature of
the Coriolis Force
Un nuovo lavoro, febbraio
2010 - A new paper, February 2010:
K3 - Maxwell's Sea of
Molecular Vortices
L3 -
Magnetic Repulsion and Centrifugal Force
(April 2010)
M3 - The Electric Rings of Force that cause the
Tides
(September 2010)
N3 - The Coriolis Force and the Aether
(The Compound Centrifugal Force)
(December
2010)
Abstract.
The Coriolis force is
induced by a compound motion involving two independent
yet physically connected motions, one of which is linear
and the other which must be of a rotatory nature. In a paper
which he wrote in 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis
referred to it as the "compound centrifugal force ". Just
like centrifugal force, it acts to deflect an element perpendicularly
to its path of motion, but its mathematical expression is exactly
twice that of the simple centrifugal force. It is commonly
associated with atmospheric cyclones, but it can also be observed
deflecting the effect of gravity on a comet, reversing a rotating
rattleback (Celtic stone), preventing a pivoted spinning gyroscope
from toppling under the force of gravity, and driving an electric
current in a wire that is moving perpendicularly to a magnetic field.
The origins of the Coriolis force will now be traced to differential
centrifugal pressure and differential vorticity in the dense background
sea of tiny aether vortices which serves as the medium for the propagation
of light.
Abstract.
The rattleback
(Celtic Stone) is the most mysterious phenomenon in
classical mechanics. It reverses its angular momentum by inducing
a Coriolis pressure from the dense background sea of rotating
electron-positron dipoles which is the medium for the propagation
of light.
P3 - The Centrifugal Force Paradox
(April 2011)
Abstract.
It is commonly
taught nowadays that centrifugal force doesn't exist,
except as a fictitious force that is only observable from
a rotating frame of reference. This belief is based on Newton's
law of inertia which states that a body undergoing straight
line motion at constant speed experiences no net force,
and that curved path motion involves only a centripetal force.
However, if we split the net zero force of straight line constant
speed motion into polar components, we find that one of these
is a centrifugal force component which can physically react with
constraints, hence revealing an underlying pressure associated
with inertia. Further evidence that centrifugal force is a real physical
force arises when inertial pressure becomes asymmetrical, as happens
in a radial gravitational field or in a solenoidal magnetic field.
Q3 - Physical Lines of Force in the Aether
(April 2011)
Abstract.
In the nineteenth
century, James Clerk-Maxwell was unable to explain the
linkage between gravity and electromagnetism. He realized
that gravitational lines of force must involve a pressure,
as is the case with magnetic lines of force when they are involved
in mutual repulsion. He also realized that the pressure in
the magnetic lines of force acts laterally due to centrifugal
force in a sea of molecular vortices, but he couldn't seem to
similarly explain the pressure in the gravitational lines of force
[1]. It will now be suggested that gravitational lines of force are
actually lines of tension, and that Maxwell's molecular vortices
are dielectric in nature. The linear polarization of these dipolar
vortices, caused by the gravitational field, will increase the centrifugal
pressure which is exerted laterally, and this pressure will result
in a repulsive force in competition with the attractive force. The attractive
force, being a monopole field, will obey the inverse square law, whereas
the repulsive force, being a dipole field, will obey the inverse cube
law. Hence if the charge of an object increases, the inverse cube law
relationship for the surrounding repulsive force field will lead to
a reversal threshold, where it will dominate over the attractive
force. The charge can increase electrostatically or because of inertia.
In the latter case, the repulsive force field is the large scale
centrifugal force.
R3 - Anti-Gravity and the Flying Saucer
(May 2011)
(New amended version: 21.XI.2011)
Abstract.
There is only
one anti-gravity force, and that is positive electric
charge. Positive charge is the centrifugally directed pressurized
aether which emerges from the sources which we understand
as positively charged particles. A particular geometrical
arrangement of the positive particles of the luminiferous medium
is sought, such that it will push a flying saucer upwards against
the gravitational field.
S3 - Centrifugal Force Denial
(June 2011)
Abstract.
When a mooring line
needs to be cast from ship to shore over a lengthy distance,
this can be accomplished by utilizing the concept of centrifugal
potential energy. Swinging the weight in circular motion in
a vertical plane, and building it up to a high angular speed
is a means of storing up pressure. The weight can then be released
underarm, resulting in a projectile with kinetic energy corresponding
to the stored centrifugal potential energy. We can of course choose
to deny the existence of this centrifugal pressure and explain the
phenomenon on the grounds that we are merely witnessing the tendency
of an object to move in a straight line in the absence of an applied
force. But we can only indulge in this denial in the absence of a
radial or a solenoidal field, and such fields exist everywhere. It
will now be shown how centrifugal force corresponds to positive electric
charge, kinetic energy, and inertia, and how a magnetic field
is a particular manifestation of inertia.
T3 - Bernoulli's Theorem and the Principle of Flight
Abstract.
When an aeroplane moves
horizontally through the air, the air pressure below the
wings is greater than the air pressure above the wings. This
causes a force to act vertically upwards on the aeroplane, at right
angles to its direction of motion. Likewise when an electric current
flows through a wire in a magnetic field, a differential pressure
is exerted on either side of the wire, causing a force to act at right
angles to the wire. In the former case the pressure arises from the
centrifugal force that is being exerted by the air molecules, whereas
in the latter case the pressure arises from the centrifugal force that
is being exerted by the tiny molecular vortices that form the medium
for the propagation of light.
U3 - Centrifugal Force
From F.D. Tombe: I decided to do
a paper dedicated exclusively to 'centrifugal force'. Other
papers that I have written incorporate my views on centrifugal
force, but this paper is designed to directly counter the official
mainstream point of view on centrifugal force.
Abstract.
It is nowadays taught
that centrifugal force is a fictitious force that
can only be observed from a rotating frame of reference. This
teaching is based on the argument that when no inward centripetal
force is acting, a particle will proceed in its straight
line inertial path. In situations where the physical effects of
centrifugal force are detected, this is dismissed as being merely
the effects of inertia. Polar coordinates relative to a point origin
expose a centrifugal force acting on a particle that is moving in
a straight line, but this centrifugal force tends to be masked from
view by virtue of the fact that the radial position vector is rotating.
This article will examine ways to expose the physical reality of
the centrifugal force.
V3 - Double Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
This article examines
a situation in which two completely separate centrifugal
forces are acting within a single rotating system. One centrifugal
force relates to the rotation axis of the rotating system,
while the other centrifugal force relates to the centre of the
Earth and the horizontal transverse speeds within the rotating
system. The latter has the power to cause an object to rise vertically
in defiance of gravity.
Z3 - The Coriolis Force (The Compound Centrifugal
Force)
Abstract.
The Coriolis force is generally
associated with the Earth's rotation, although it can arise
in connection with any kind of rotation. In a paper which he wrote
in 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis referred to
it as the "compound centrifugal force", and that is exactly what
it is. It is a compound inertial force which results when a compound
motion causes two opposing centrifugal pressures to press differentially
on either side of an object. When an object moves through the medium
for the propagation of light, this induces an inertial pressure around
the object which is manifested as kinetic energy. When this inertial
pressure is asymmetrical, such as is the case in a radial or in a
solenoidal field, the asymmetry is manifested as an inertial force.
In meteorology, the asymmetry which leads to the Coriolis force being
induced in cyclones is complicated by the fact that there are two centres
of rotation involved, and hence we are dealing with a double Coriolis
force. With the double Coriolis force in meteorology, there is the rotation
that is centred on the Earth, and there is also the rotation that is centred
on the cyclone itself.
A4 - Maxwell's Original Equations
From the Introduction:
Although Maxwell's most important equations
had already appeared throughout his seminal paper entitled
"On Physical Lines of Force", which was written in 1861 in
Great Britain, it was not until 1864 that Maxwell created a distinct
listing of eight equations in a section entitled "General Equations
of the Electromagnetic Field" in his follow up paper entitled
"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". While Maxwell
refers to twenty equations at the end of this section, there are
in fact only eight equations as such. Maxwell arrives at the figure
of twenty because he splits six of these equations into their three
Cartesian components. Maxwell's eight original equations will be
discussed in depth in individual sections throughout this paper.
B4 - Electric Current (Cable Telegraphy and Wireless Telegraphy)
Abstract.
Poynting's theorem applies
to wireless telegraphy as well as to electric circuits and cable
telegraphy. We will therefore seek to establish the commonality
between these three phenomena.
C4 - Newton's Cradle and the Transmission Line
Abstract.
Two electric currents flowing
in opposite directions along the same wire in a transmission line
appear to pass right through each other. We therefore require
a theory of electric current that can account for this, while at
the same time maintaining consistency with Ampère's circuital law.
D4 -
The Distortion of Maxwell's Equations
Abstract.
James Clerk-Maxwell is credited
with having brought electricity, magnetism, and optical phenomena,
together into one unified theory. The details of what exactly
he did were however seriously distorted in twentieth century physics
textbooks. Maxwell is most famous in connection with a set of equations
which bear his name, but these equations have been totally removed
from the physical context within which Maxwell was working, and outside
of that physical context the full meaning of these equations is lost.
Maxwell was working within the context of a sea of tiny aethereal vortices
pressing against each other with centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
bit was crucial for explaining magnetic repulsion, yet both centrifugal
force and aether are stringently denied by modern physicists who nevertheless
continue to hail Maxwell for the equations that he derived by using these
very concepts which they deny. This irony seems to be explained at least
in part because they think that the equations can be re-derived using
Einstein's special theory of relativity. Such an erroneous belief stems
from the fact that one of the most important of Maxwell's equations has
been wrongly credited to Lorentz and referred to as the Lorentz force law
and treated as ‘supplementary’ to Maxwell's equations. Einstein, being ignorant
of Maxwell's original equations and the fact that they contained the Lorentz
force law, hence wrongly believed that the equations contained no convective
term, and so he made the erroneous conclusion that Maxwell's equations
mean that the speed of light must be frame independent in contradiction of
classical principles of vector addition of velocities. This erroneous conclusion
led Einstein to his special theory of relativity in 1905, and it subsequently
led to the erroneous belief amongst both relativists and many anti-relativists,
that Einstein's special theory of relativity follows naturally from Maxwell's
theory, when in fact Maxwell and Einstein were not even remotely working
along the same lines.
E4
-
The Two Kinds of Electric Charge
Abstract.
In an earlier article, it was
explained how there are four kinds of electric charge. There
are in fact only two kinds of electric charge. The earlier article
created four kinds of charge by identifying both a simple and a compound
version for each of positive and negative charge. Simple charge was
based on the tension and pressure associated with pure aether flow,
in and out of negative and positive particles, while compound charge
was about the intermediary effect of the electron-positron dipoles that
fill the space between charged bodies. A charged body linearly polarizes
the surrounding electron-positron sea and this causes a centrifugal
repulsive force to act laterally from the field lines. It will be
explained how two negative charges may either attract or repel depending
on the strength of the charge, and hence explaining the link between
gravity and electrostatics.
F4 - Electric Current and Dielectrics
Abstract.
A dielectric medium impedes electric current due
to the fact that the constituent dipoles become linearly polarized
and induce a back EMF. A capacitor in an electric circuit utilizes
the principle that a dielectric gap in the conducting material causes
impedance and acts like a dam, hence enabling electricity to be
stored in the circuit. This same dielectric effect can also be used
in transmission lines. We will now examine the discharging process
in a capacitor with reference to a transmission line pulse, while
taking care not to ignore Ampère's Circuital Law. A general principle
will be proposed in which an electric circulation commences at the
contact point of discharge, and that this circulation expands in two opposite
directions, eating its way backwards into the original charged zone while
simultaneously extending forwards beyond it, such as to create a region
that is twice as long as the original zone, but exhibiting a lesser degree
of linear polarization.
G4 - The Centrifugal Force and the Coriolis Force
Abstract.
In 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis
wrote a paper in which he mathematically derived equations of motion
for rotating coordinate systems [1]. In this paper he drew attention
to two categories of supplementary forces. Coriolis referred to
these forces in the plural. The forces in the first category were the
ordinary centrifugal forces, while the forces in the second category
were described as being equal to twice the product of the angular velocity
of the mobile plane, taken with respect to the relative momentum as
projected unto that plane. By analogy with the mathematical formula for
the ordinary centrifugal forces, Coriolis called this second category
of supplementary forces "The compound centrifugal forces". This
paper aims to establish the fundamental physical cause behind centrifugal
force as well as its connection with the medium for the propagation of
light.
[1] Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, «Sur
les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps», J.
de L'Ecole Royale Polytechnique, 24th cahier, p. 142, 1835.
H4 - The Centrifugal Force Argument
Abstract.
The modern teaching is that centrifugal force only
exists in a rotating frame of reference and that the only force
that acts in an inertial frame of reference when a body undergoes
circular motion is an inward acting centripetal force. On the contrary
however it is here proposed that a rotating frame of reference, rather
than creating an inertial centrifugal force, actually masks a hithertofore
unrecognized inertial centripetal force. When the books are correctly
balanced, it will be demonstrated that centrifugal force is a real
force, closely related to kinetic energy, and observable in any frame
of reference.
I4 - The Speed of Light
Abstract.
The aether (or electricity) is a fluid-like
substance that is the stuff of all matter and space, and it flows
constantly between positive and negative particles, with particles
being merely aether sources and aether sinks. Space is densely packed
with aether sinks (electrons) and aether sources (positrons). These
electrons and positrons are paired into tiny dipoles. Within each dipole,
the electron and the positron will undergo a mutual circular orbit.
In the steady state, these tiny dipolar aether vortices will align with
their neighbours according to two superimposed principles. Their rotation
axes will mutually align and trace out solenoidal lines around a magnetic
dipole. The resulting electron-positron double helix that winds its
way around each such line is what causes the electrostatic tension that
makes it into a 'magnetic line of force'. When large scale aether flow,
constituting either an externally applied gravitational field or an electric
current (electric field), is superimposed, the tiny vortices will become
linearly polarized. This will result in a 'couple force' acting on the
tiny vortices which will cause them to precess such that their precessional
axes will be aligned with the externally applied field lines. Centrifugal
pressure therefore acts at right angles to both magnetic and electric
lines of force. In the dynamic state the alignment of the dipoles is
undergoing change and the tiny dipoles will be angularly accelerating,
either in magnitude or direction (precession). This realignment will be
accompanied by a net vortex flow of pressurized aether that passes between
neighbouring dipoles. This net flow of momentum is electromagnetic radiation
and it has a wave-like nature, in that the flow will constantly be emerging
from positrons and sinking into electrons. The average speed of this flow
is what determines the speed of light.
L4
- Galilean Invariance and Mach's Principle
Abstract.
Galileo's «Principle of Relativity»
omits any consideration of an absolute frame of reference with
respect to which motion is measured. Kinetic energy would appear
to be a relative quantity whose magnitude depends on the chosen frame
of reference, or in the case of its centrifugal force derivative,
depends on which polar origin is chosen. The magnitude of any physical
interaction involving two bodies is only ever dependent on their relative
velocity, and there seems to be no way of exposing the existence of any
special frame of reference with respect to which linear kinetic energy
is an absolute physical quantity. The fact of centrifugal force however
does indicate that such a frame of reference must exist, and that this
frame appears to be embedded in a medium that is in a state of zero
rotation relative to the fixed background stars. Rotation relative to
the fixed background stars induces centrifugal force, which suggests
that kinetic energy is indeed an absolute physical quantity that is
induced by the interaction of a moving body with a physical medium
which pervades all of space. In this article it will be proposed that
the physical medium for the propagation of light is also the cause of
kinetic energy and centrifugal force, and we will be reminded that Maxwell's
equations are formulated specifically with this medium as the standard
of rest. Important questions relating to the motion of this luminiferous
medium relative to the planets and the stars will then be discussed.
M4
- The Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
It is proposed that all space is permeated with a dense
electrically neutral sea of electrons and positrons which serves
as the medium for the propagation of light. The challenge remains
to devise a stable bonding mechanism within this luminiferous medium
that conforms with Maxwell's equations by providing the necessary solidity
and the physical mechanism that will give rise to the characteristics
of electromagnetic waves, while at the same time allowing for the
fluidity that would avoid the problem of friction in the planetary
orbits.
M4'
- The Electron-Positron Sea
A slightly revised version (October 2017) of the previous
paper.
N4 -
Newton's Cradle Disproves Einstein's Theories of Relativity
Abstract.
The counter intuitive behaviour of the Newton's Cradle
is not, as is generally believed, adequately explained in the literature.
In particular, two important issues are overlooked. One of these
is that the elasticity of the balls arises due to the fact that the
balls are made of hard material that doesn't easily deform during
the collisions, when in fact we might have expected the hard material
to have actually reduced the elasticity. This therefore rules out linear
elasticity and Hooke's law as being the principle action, and so it
is proposed that the energy waves that transfer the kinetic energy through
the row of balls are based on fine-grained rotational elasticity, similar
in nature to that which arises in electromagnetic radiation. The other
overlooked issue is that the kinetic energy waves that move through
the metal balls immediately after a collision, move either to the right
or to the left of the point of impact, or in both directions, but since
energy transfer inside the balls has an absolute motion relative to the
balls themselves, then whether the energy within the balls moves to the
right, or to the left, or in both directions, must depend on the absolute
motion of the balls. The direction of the energy transfer within the balls
cannot depend on an arbitrary choice of rest frame. It therefore remains
to determine the physical basis for absolute motion and kinetic energy.
Only then, in terms of absolute motion, can the Newton's cradle be correctly
analyzed.
O4 - Magnetic
Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
Abstract.
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour that is exhibited
by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement of an active spin-induced
force, similar in nature to the magnetic force, F = qv×B,
and which cannot be predicted by Newtonian mechanics. The phenomenon
of gyroscopic stability exhibits a strong reactance which cannot be accounted
for by the moment of inertia. The physical connection between the inertial
forces and magnetic repulsion will be investigated.
O4'
- Magnetic Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
New revised version: 10th October 2015
This paper has been amended: "The essence of the change
is that I have now firmly concluded that the inertial forces arise directly
from Newton's laws of motion and not as supplements. Polar coordinates
exposes the inertial forces in an inertial frame of reference". Here
it is the new abstract:
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour that is exhibited
by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement of an active spin-induced
force, similar in nature to the magnetic force, F = qv×B.
The phenomenon of gyroscopic stability exhibits a strong spin-induced
reactance which cannot be accounted for by the moment of inertia alone.
The physical connection between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion
will be investigated.
P4 -
Centrifugal Force and the Electron-Positron
Sea
Abstract.
We often hear it said that centrifugal force is not a real
force and that it is only the effects of inertia that are caused
by a body undergoing its uniform straight line path, as per Newton's
first law of motion. These effects of inertia however are very real
and this suggests that the inertial path itself must have an underlying
physical cause. This cause will now be ascribed to a background elasticity
that is rooted in electrostatics. The electric dipole, with its inverse
cube law field, will be proposed as the primary physical cause of centrifugal
force, while the inertial path and the Mach Principle will be seen
to result from the compound effect of a dense multitude of superimposed
dipole fields filling all of space.
Q4
- Wikipedia and Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that anybody can edit.
The content changes on a continual basis. One of the rules is that
editors must not insert original research. The contents must reflect
what is stated in reliable sources. In the case of the centrifugal
force article however, reliable sources don’t always agree, and over
the years, the inability of editors at that article to consider the totality
of existing knowledge on the subject has led to never ending discussions
and edit wars. An example of the confusion that surrounds this topic
can be found at this web link,
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/37968/centrifugal-force-and-polar-coordinates
R4 -
Wikipedia and Coriolis Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that anybody can edit.
The content changes on a daily basis. One of the rules for editing
is that editors must not insert original research. The contents must
reflect exactly what is stated in reliable sources. Reliable sources
present Coriolis force as an artefact of making observations
from a rotating frame of reference. When stationary objects are viewed
from a rotating frame of reference, it's true that the effects are unequivocally
fictitious. However, in situations where an entire system is rotating,
the Coriolis force can be very real, and this fact tends to cause confusion.
It will be argued that in the former case scenarios there is no Coriolis
force present at all, real or fictitious, while in the latter case scenarios
the Coriolis force is due to Newton's laws of motion, and that it already
exists independently of the rotating frame of reference.
S4
- The 1856 Weber-Kohlrausch Experiment (The Speed of Light)
Abstract.
Nineteenth century physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Gustav Kirchhoff,
and James Clerk-Maxwell are all credited with connecting electricity
to the speed of light. Weber's breakthrough in 1856, in conjunction with
Rudolf Kohlrausch, revealed the speed of light in the context of a ratio
as between two different units of electric charge. In 1857 Kirchhoff connected
this ratio to the speed of an electric signal along a wire. Finally in
1862, Maxwell connected this ratio to the elasticity in the all pervading
luminiferous medium that serves as the carrier of light waves. This paper
sets out to establish the fundamental cause of the speed of light.
T4
- Compressed Orbits and the Secret Behind E = mc²
Abstract.
On the astronomical scale, the potential energy in a closed orbit
is due to the gravitational force of attraction. These are uncompressed
orbits. The gravitational force is opposed by a centrifugal force acting
internally from within the system. This article will now consider the nature
of the potential energy in a system of multiple orbits that are pressing
against each other with centrifugal force while striving to dilate. Centrifugal
potential energy is shown to lie at the root of the famous equation E
= mc² .
U4
- Atomic Clocks and Gravitational Field Strength
Abstract.
A redefinition of potential energy better emphasizes the physical reality
of gravitational field strength. The current definition only deals with
motion on the large scale and not with the fine-grained motions at molecular
level which are relevant to the mechanism of atomic clocks.
V4
- The Inertial Helicopter
Abstract.
A sea level object that is moving horizontally at a speed greater than
8 km/sec is already in orbit and it will rise upwards due to centrifugal
force. Two such objects tethered together while moving in opposite directions
should therefore spiral upwards like a helicopter. It will be proposed that
the atom is a dipole, and that it is the fundamental helicopter.
W4
- The Double Helix and the Electron-Positron Aether
Abstract.
This article takes a closer look at the bonding and stability mechanisms
within the electron-positron dipole sea and how these result in the double
helix theory of the magnetic field. The physical connection between the
inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will be further investigated.
X4
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
Abstract.
This article follows on from previous papers on the double helix theory
of the magnetic field. A closer look will be taken at the low energy electromagnetic
radiation that is confined to a solenoidal path along the field lines within
a near magnetic field, such as occurs in a transmission line pulse.
Y4 -
Induction of Electrostatic Repulsion by Strong Gravity (The Link
between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
Abstract.
The radial lines of force that are associated with Gauss's law indicate
the presence of fluid-like sinks and sources in matter, whether or not we
know where these lead to. This article will examine how two sinks can be
either mutually attractive or mutually repulsive depending on the rate of
flow.
Z4
- The Pendulum and the Magnetic Connection
Abstract.
When analyzing pendulum motion, textbooks avoid invoking centrifugal force.
All upward acting forces are accounted for by the tension in the rod. This
tension must however be greater in magnitude than gravity in order for a
net upward force to be possible. The role of centrifugal force in both the
simple pendulum and the conical pendulum will therefore be re-examined, and
a connection with magnetic repulsion will be suggested.
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