FORUM DI EPISTEME
Maxwell's
sea of molecular vortices 1861,
the inspiration for "The Double Helix Theory of the
Magnetic Field"
_____________________________________________________________
4 - Frederick
David Tombe
sirius184@hotmail.com
- - - - -
The following 1st July 2010 revision of "The Double Helix
Theory of the Magnetic Field" summarizes all the most important
issues that have been covered in the various revisions since the original
paper of 15th February 2006.
Abstract.
In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch
performed an experiment with a Leyden Jar which showed
that the ratio of the quantity of electricity when
measured statically, to the same quantity of electricity
when measured electrodynamically, is numerically
equal to the directly measured speed of light. In 1861, in
his paper entitled ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, James
Clerk-Maxwell equated the above ratio with the ratio of the
dielectric constant to the magnetic permeability. In the
same paper, Maxwell modeled Faraday’s magnetic lines of
force using a sea of molecular vortices that were composed
partly of aether and partly of ordinary matter. He linked
the dielectric constant to the transverse elasticity of this
vortex sea, and he linked the magnetic permeability to the
density. Since Newton’s equation for the speed of sound involves
the ratio of the transverse elasticity to the density,
Maxwell was able to use Weber’s constant to show that light
is a wave in the same medium that is the cause of electric and
magnetic phenomena. It will now be suggested that Maxwell’s
molecular vortices are more accurately represented with rotating
electron-positron dipoles that are aligned in a double helix
fashion with their mutual rotation axes tracing out the magnetic
lines of force.
May 2016 - A new
version of the previous paper:
Abstract.
The historical linkage between optics and electromagnetism
can be traced back to a paper published in the year 1856 by
Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. By discharging a
Leyden Jar (a capacitor), they showed that the ratio of the electromagnetic
and electrostatic units of charge is numerically equal to the directly
measured speed of light. Weber interpreted this result as meaning
that the speed of light is a kind of escape velocity for electricity
in motion, such as would enable the associated magnetic force to overcome
the electrostatic force. An alternative interpretation was advanced
a few years later by James Clerk-Maxwell who connected the result
to the elasticity in an all pervading solid medium that serves as
the carrier of light waves. As a consequence, he concluded that light
waves are electromagnetic undulations. These two perspectives can
be reconciled by linking the speed of light to the circumferential
speed of the molecular vortices which Maxwell believed to be the
constituent particles of the solid luminiferous medium. If we consider
these molecular vortices to be tiny electric current circulations,
magnetic repulsion can then be explained in terms of centrifugal force.
And if these molecular vortices should take the form of an electron
and a positron in mutual orbit, we can then also explain magnetic attraction
in terms of the more fundamental electrostatic force being channeled
through space along double helix chains that constitute magnetic lines
of force.
* * * * *
B - Gravitation,
Electrostatics, and the
Electron-Positron Aether (Ether)
(Based
on the 1982 paper by David Tombe, entitled
"Electrogravitomagnetism")
[22nd August 2008 - This
paper has been totally
withdrawn, for the reason
that it centres around a theory which attempts to
rationalize inertial mass as being related to the sum of
the "modulus" of the electric charge in a body. More recently,
I have been working on a different principle as explained
in the paper at N2 entitled "Negative Mass and the Gravity
Sink". The ideas contained in this paper concerning
inertial mass were only peripheral to the main theme regarding
an electron-positron luminiferous medium. These ideas concerning
inertial mass have now been superseded by a new theory which
involves absolute values as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge
.
(We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the paper for history's sake.)
3rd November 2011
- A comment from the author. There is really no
important need to withdraw this paper. I am once again
of the opinion, as was stated in the paper, that mass is
a cumulative quantity based on all the particles in a body.
I can add that it is widely believed, due to a common error in
the secondary literature, that Maxwell conceived of displacement
current in connection with the electric capacitor circuit. In
actual fact, Maxwell's original paper of 1861, part III, indicates
that he did not conceive of displacement current in connection
with the electric capacitor circuit. This paper, based on research
done in 1982, perpetrates that common error, and the author
has corrected it in future articles. The author also now notes
that the displacement current term as is used in the derivation
of the electromagnetic wave equation, should be magnetization based,
and not linear polarization based. In other words, it should be
a rotatory effect and not a linear effect.]
23rd January 2011 - This paper has been fully
revised, here is in red a comment from the author (we maintain
previous comments again for history's sake).
- This article was written
in 2003 based on original material from 1982, without
any revision of the core ideas. Research was commenced again
in 2004. As a result of seven further years of investigation,
comments have now been added in red by the author,
in order to draw attention to the revised views in the light
of the more recent research. The first issue concerns the title
itself. The electron-positron sea is not the aether as such. Positrons
are aether sources and electrons are aether sinks. The electrons
and positrons are paired in mutual orbits to form rotating dipoles,
and as such the electron-positron medium for the propagation of
light is actually a sea of tiny dipolar aether whirlpools.
E - Gravity Reversal
and Atomic Bonding
(A Theory of Mutually Attracting Sinks)
[Note of the Editor: As far
as the following assertion
is concerne d:
«
the Earth's magnetic
field is explained by virtue
of the fact that the Earth is a rotating
negatively charged object»
, the reader could
be interested even in the paper presented
in next point 8.]
(The
Epicycle Theory of the Atom)
(New
revised version: 5th August 2008)
I - Charge, Spin,
and 'Charge to Mass'
Ratio
(A Unified
Theory of Gravity and Electricity)
22nd August 2008: This paper has
been
totally withdrawn
(together with paper
B)
, for the
reason that it centres around a theory
which attempts to rationalize inertial
mass as being related to the sum of the
"modulus" of the electric charge in a body.
More recently, I have been working on a different
principle as explained in the paper at N2 entitled
"Negative Mass and the Gravity Sink".
The ideas contained in this
paper concerning inertial mass were
only peripheral to the main theme regarding an electron-positron
luminiferous medium. These ideas
concerning inertial mass have now been superseded
by a new theory which involves absolute values
as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge,
and the theories concerning
centrifugal force and Coriolis force contained
within this paper have been expanded upon in the
paper at Q2 entitled "The Cause of Centrifugal Force"
.
(We maintain nevertheless a copy
of the paper for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 5th August 2008)
L -
The Aether
and the Electric Sea
(The
Link between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
(New
revised version: 18th February 2009)
(New
revised version: 5th March 2009)
New
revised version: 18th March 2009
( "The amendment
changed a paragraph in the section
about inertia")
(New
revised version of L: 2nd June 2009
"Another
section mentioning inertia was removed". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
(New
revised version of U': 2nd June 2009
"This
was a major amendment based on the realization
that the Coriolis force is a real transverse force
that arises in connection with the conservation
of angular momentum". We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the previous paper for history's sake.)
Y - The Four Kinds of Electric
Charge
(A
vitreous electricity explanation for infinite supplies
of electric charge)
(New revised version: 24th September 2008)
(New
revised version: 14th December 2008)
(New
revised version: 2nd June 2009
"A
general re-wording without any major change in the
content".)
A2' - Bernoulli's
Principle and the Theory of Flight
(New revised version of A2:
2nd June 2009
"This
was a major re-write with an increased emphasis
on the role of the centrifugal force in the
air molecules". We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the previous paper for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 18th May 2008)
(New
revised version: 18th February 2009)
H2 - Bernoulli's Principle
and the AC Transformer
(New
revised version: 18th May 2008)
October 2016 - A new version of the previous
paper (this new version disregards matters to do with capacitance
as they are a red herring to the main issue: that charge is something
that must flow net into the circuit from the power
source; the idea is that charge is the pressure in an electric fluid
and that Bernoulli's principle in conjunction with conservation of
power is the governing feature in a transformer circuit; the older version
side-tracks too much to the subject of capacitance, and it doesn't sufficiently
emphasize the fact that charge must enter net as like pressurized water
into the water supply network):
Abstract.
The AC transformer is a transducer
which converts between potential energy and kinetic energy.
A step-up transformer increases the voltage and decreases the
current while a step-down transformer does the opposite. Despite
the low current, streaks of lightning arc out from high voltage
cross country power cables when earthed objects get too close. The
physical nature of voltage will now be examined.
N2 - Negative Mass and
the Gravity Sink
O2 - The General Convective Force
(A
General Survey of the Coriolis force and the Centrifugal
force)
(New
revised version: 9th June 2008)
(New
revised version: 19th August 2008
)
P2
-
Centrifugal
Force in the Electric Circuit
(New
revised version: 28th December 2008:
"The
focus was in amending the section on EM induction
in relation to Coriolis Force", see
T2 and T2')
(New
revised version: 29th January 2009)
New
revised version: 18th March 2009
("The wording in the centrifugal force
section was improved to emphasize the
extrapolation of the general principle of centrifugal
force to the four body problem in which two
closed orbital systems sit side by side, and therefore
must repel each other ")
P2' -
Centrifugal Force in the Electric Circuit
(New
revised version of P2: 2nd June 2009
"This revision goes into
much more detail on the role of the Coriolis
force in the induction of current in a wire
that is moving through a magnetic field". We
maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous paper
for history's sake.)
(New
revised version: 19th August 2008
)
(New
revised version: 7th December 2008
)
(New
revised version: 5th March 2009)
Q2' - The Cause of Centrifugal Force
(New revised version of Q2:
2nd June 2009
"This
was a major re-write based on the realization that
the inverse cube law points to a dipole field".
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the
previous paper for history's sake.)
(New
revised version: 28th August 2008
)
(New
revised version: 14th December 2008)
S2 - The Coriolis Force and the Screw
* 30.XI.2011: This paper has now
been withdrawn, but you can still read it with an author's remark.
T2 -
Areal Velocity, Coriolis
Force, and Vorticity
T2' -
The Cause of Coriolis
Force
(New
revised version of T2: 28th December 2008)
"T2'
is a major amendment. I've taken all the contents into
what is effectively a new paper". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.
( New revised
version: 5th March 2009)
T2''
-
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New
revised version of T2': 2nd June 2009)
"This
was a major re-write based on a clearer division
between transverse Coriolis force and axial Coriolis
force"
. We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.
U2 -
Displacement Current
(New
revised version: 14th December 2008)
V2 - Displacement
Current 2
(New
revised version: 18th February 2009)
Y2 - Wave/Particle Duality in Electromagnetic
Radiation
Z2 -
Wave/Particle Duality
in Cathode Rays
A3 -
Cathode Rays, Gravity, and Electromagnetic
Radiation
(New
revised version: 14th December 2008)
B3 -
Tangential Force – The
Equilibrium Shifter
(New
revised version: 29th January 2009)
New
revised version: 18th March 2009 ("
Appendix B was removed as it was a bit
hard to read, and out of context, and it will
be the subject of a separate paper some time in
the future ")
B3' -
Lenz's Law
(New
revised version of B3: 5th November 2009
This
is a major re-write of the previous paper,
we maintain nevertheless a copy of the older one for history's
sake.)
C3 - The Key
that Winds up the Universe
New
revised version: 18th March 2009 ("
Large, somewhat confusing sections on
'inertia' were removed. A new paper on inertia
will be written some time in the future")
D3
-
Electromagnetism
and the Rolling Wheel
E3 - The Superimposition of Radiation
and Gravity
New
revised version: 5th March 2009
F3 - The Rotationally Elastic Sponge
G3 - Kepler's Law of Areal Velocity
in Cyclones
H3 -
Inertia and the Electric Sea
I3 -
The
Coriolis Force is a System of Accountancy for
Real Forces
J3 -
The Physical Nature of the
Coriolis Force
Un nuovo
lavoro, febbraio 2010 - A new paper, February 2010:
K3 - Maxwell's
Sea of Molecular Vortices
L3 -
Magnetic Repulsion and Centrifugal Force
(April 2010)
M3 - The Electric Rings of Force that cause the
Tides
(September
2010)
N3 - The Coriolis Force and
the Aether (The Compound Centrifugal Force)
(December 2010)
Abstract.
The
Coriolis force is induced by a compound motion involving
two independent yet physically connected motions,
one of which is linear and the other which must be of
a rotatory nature. In a paper which he wrote in 1835, French
scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis referred to it as the
"compound centrifugal force ". Just like centrifugal
force, it acts to deflect an element perpendicularly to
its path of motion, but its mathematical expression is exactly
twice that of the simple centrifugal force. It is commonly
associated with atmospheric cyclones, but it can also be observed
deflecting the effect of gravity on a comet, reversing a rotating
rattleback (Celtic stone), preventing a pivoted spinning gyroscope
from toppling under the force of gravity, and driving an electric
current in a wire that is moving perpendicularly to a magnetic field.
The origins of the Coriolis force will now be traced to differential
centrifugal pressure and differential vorticity in the dense background
sea of tiny aether vortices which serves as the medium for the propagation
of light.
Abstract.
The
rattleback (Celtic Stone) is the most mysterious
phenomenon in classical mechanics. It reverses its angular
momentum by inducing a Coriolis pressure from the dense
background sea of rotating electron-positron dipoles
which is the medium for the propagation of light.
P3 - The Centrifugal Force Paradox
(April
2011)
Abstract.
It
is commonly taught nowadays that centrifugal force
doesn't exist, except as a fictitious force that is only
observable from a rotating frame of reference. This
belief is based on Newton's law of inertia which states
that a body undergoing straight line motion at constant
speed experiences no net force, and that curved path motion
involves only a centripetal force. However, if we split
the net zero force of straight line constant speed motion
into polar components, we find that one of these is a centrifugal
force component which can physically react with constraints,
hence revealing an underlying pressure associated with inertia.
Further evidence that centrifugal force is a real physical
force arises when inertial pressure becomes asymmetrical, as
happens in a radial gravitational field or in a solenoidal magnetic
field.
Q3 - Physical Lines of Force in
the Aether
(April
2011)
Abstract.
In
the nineteenth century, James Clerk-Maxwell was
unable to explain the linkage between gravity and electromagnetism.
He realized that gravitational lines of force must
involve a pressure, as is the case with magnetic lines
of force when they are involved in mutual repulsion. He also
realized that the pressure in the magnetic lines of force
acts laterally due to centrifugal force in a sea of molecular
vortices, but he couldn't seem to similarly explain the pressure
in the gravitational lines of force [1]. It will now be suggested
that gravitational lines of force are actually lines of tension,
and that Maxwell's molecular vortices are dielectric in nature. The
linear polarization of these dipolar vortices, caused by the gravitational
field, will increase the centrifugal pressure which is exerted
laterally, and this pressure will result in a repulsive force
in competition with the attractive force. The attractive force,
being a monopole field, will obey the inverse square law, whereas
the repulsive force, being a dipole field, will obey the inverse
cube law. Hence if the charge of an object increases, the inverse
cube law relationship for the surrounding repulsive force field
will lead to a reversal threshold, where it will dominate over
the attractive force. The charge can increase electrostatically
or because of inertia. In the latter case, the repulsive force
field is the large scale centrifugal force.
R3 - Anti-Gravity and the Flying Saucer
(May 2011)
(New amended version:
21.XI.2011)
Abstract.
There
is only one anti-gravity force, and that is positive
electric charge. Positive charge is the centrifugally
directed pressurized aether which emerges from the sources
which we understand as positively charged particles. A particular
geometrical arrangement of the positive particles of the
luminiferous medium is sought, such that it will push a flying
saucer upwards against the gravitational field.
S3 - Centrifugal Force Denial
(June
2011)
Abstract.
When
a mooring line needs to be cast from ship to shore
over a lengthy distance, this can be accomplished by utilizing
the concept of centrifugal potential energy. Swinging
the weight in circular motion in a vertical plane, and
building it up to a high angular speed is a means of storing
up pressure. The weight can then be released underarm, resulting
in a projectile with kinetic energy corresponding to the stored
centrifugal potential energy. We can of course choose to deny
the existence of this centrifugal pressure and explain the phenomenon
on the grounds that we are merely witnessing the tendency
of an object to move in a straight line in the absence of an
applied force. But we can only indulge in this denial in the absence
of a radial or a solenoidal field, and such fields exist everywhere.
It will now be shown how centrifugal force corresponds to positive
electric charge, kinetic energy, and inertia, and how a magnetic
field is a particular manifestation of inertia.
T3 - Bernoulli's Theorem and the Principle of Flight
Abstract.
When
an aeroplane moves horizontally through the air,
the air pressure below the wings is greater than the air
pressure above the wings. This causes a force to act vertically
upwards on the aeroplane, at right angles to its direction
of motion. Likewise when an electric current flows through a wire
in a magnetic field, a differential pressure is exerted on either
side of the wire, causing a force to act at right angles to the
wire. In the former case the pressure arises from the centrifugal
force that is being exerted by the air molecules, whereas in the
latter case the pressure arises from the centrifugal force that is
being exerted by the tiny molecular vortices that form the medium
for the propagation of light.
U3 - Centrifugal
Force
From F.D. Tombe:
I decided to do a paper dedicated exclusively to
'centrifugal force'. Other papers that I have written incorporate
my views on centrifugal force, but this paper is designed
to directly counter the official mainstream point of view on
centrifugal force.
Abstract.
It is nowadays taught that centrifugal force
is a fictitious force that can only be observed from a rotating
frame of reference. This teaching is based on the argument
that when no inward centripetal force is acting,
a particle will proceed in its straight line inertial
path. In situations where the physical effects of centrifugal
force are detected, this is dismissed as being merely the
effects of inertia. Polar coordinates relative to a point origin
expose a centrifugal force acting on a particle that is moving
in a straight line, but this centrifugal force tends to be masked
from view by virtue of the fact that the radial position vector
is rotating. This article will examine ways to expose the physical
reality of the centrifugal force.
V3 - Double Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
This
article examines a situation in which two completely
separate centrifugal forces are acting within a single
rotating system. One centrifugal force relates to the
rotation axis of the rotating system, while the other centrifugal
force relates to the centre of the Earth and the horizontal
transverse speeds within the rotating system. The latter has
the power to cause an object to rise vertically in defiance of gravity.
Z3 - The Coriolis Force (The Compound Centrifugal
Force)
Abstract.
The
Coriolis force is generally associated with the Earth's
rotation, although it can arise in connection with any
kind of rotation. In a paper which he wrote in 1835, French
scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis referred to it as the
"compound centrifugal force", and that is exactly what it
is. It is a compound inertial force which results when a compound
motion causes two opposing centrifugal pressures to press differentially
on either side of an object. When an object moves through
the medium for the propagation of light, this induces an inertial
pressure around the object which is manifested as kinetic energy.
When this inertial pressure is asymmetrical, such as is the case
in a radial or in a solenoidal field, the asymmetry is manifested
as an inertial force. In meteorology, the asymmetry which leads
to the Coriolis force being induced in cyclones is complicated by
the fact that there are two centres of rotation involved, and hence
we are dealing with a double Coriolis force. With the double Coriolis
force in meteorology, there is the rotation that is centred on the
Earth, and there is also the rotation that is centred on the cyclone
itself.
A4 - Maxwell's Original Equations
From the
Introduction:
Although Maxwell's most
important equations had already appeared throughout
his seminal paper entitled "On Physical Lines of Force",
which was written in 1861 in Great Britain, it was not
until 1864 that Maxwell created a distinct listing of eight
equations in a section entitled "General Equations of the
Electromagnetic Field" in his follow up paper entitled "A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". While Maxwell
refers to twenty equations at the end of this section, there
are in fact only eight equations as such. Maxwell arrives
at the figure of twenty because he splits six of these equations
into their three Cartesian components. Maxwell's eight original
equations will be discussed in depth in individual sections
throughout this paper.
B4 - Electric Current (Cable Telegraphy and Wireless Telegraphy)
Abstract.
Poynting's
theorem applies to wireless telegraphy as well as to
electric circuits and cable telegraphy. We will therefore
seek to establish the commonality between these three phenomena.
C4 - Newton's Cradle and the Transmission Line
Abstract.
Two electric
currents flowing in opposite directions along the same
wire in a transmission line appear to pass right through each
other. We therefore require a theory of electric current that can
account for this, while at the same time maintaining consistency
with Ampère's circuital law.
D4 -
The Distortion of Maxwell's Equations
Abstract.
James Clerk-Maxwell
is credited with having brought electricity, magnetism,
and optical phenomena, together into one unified theory.
The details of what exactly he did were however seriously distorted
in twentieth century physics textbooks. Maxwell is most
famous in connection with a set of equations which bear his name,
but these equations have been totally removed from the physical
context within which Maxwell was working, and outside of that physical
context the full meaning of these equations is lost. Maxwell was
working within the context of a sea of tiny aethereal vortices pressing
against each other with centrifugal force. The centrifugal force bit
was crucial for explaining magnetic repulsion, yet both centrifugal
force and aether are stringently denied by modern physicists who nevertheless
continue to hail Maxwell for the equations that he derived by using
these very concepts which they deny. This irony seems to be explained
at least in part because they think that the equations can be re-derived
using Einstein's special theory of relativity. Such an erroneous
belief stems from the fact that one of the most important of Maxwell's
equations has been wrongly credited to Lorentz and referred to as
the Lorentz force law and treated as ‘supplementary’ to Maxwell's equations.
Einstein, being ignorant of Maxwell's original equations and the fact
that they contained the Lorentz force law, hence wrongly believed that
the equations contained no convective term, and so he made the erroneous
conclusion that Maxwell's equations mean that the speed of light must
be frame independent in contradiction of classical principles of vector
addition of velocities. This erroneous conclusion led Einstein to his
special theory of relativity in 1905, and it subsequently led to the
erroneous belief amongst both relativists and many anti-relativists,
that Einstein's special theory of relativity follows naturally from Maxwell's
theory, when in fact Maxwell and Einstein were not even remotely working
along the same lines.
E4
-
The Two Kinds of Electric Charge
Abstract.
In an earlier
article, it was explained how there are four kinds of
electric charge. There are in fact only two kinds of electric
charge. The earlier article created four kinds of charge by identifying
both a simple and a compound version for each of positive and
negative charge. Simple charge was based on the tension and pressure
associated with pure aether flow, in and out of negative and positive
particles, while compound charge was about the intermediary effect
of the electron-positron dipoles that fill the space between charged
bodies. A charged body linearly polarizes the surrounding electron-positron
sea and this causes a centrifugal repulsive force to act laterally
from the field lines. It will be explained how two negative charges
may either attract or repel depending on the strength of the
charge, and hence explaining the link between gravity and electrostatics.
F4 - Electric Current and Dielectrics
Abstract.
A dielectric medium impedes
electric current due to the fact that the constituent
dipoles become linearly polarized and induce a back EMF. A capacitor
in an electric circuit utilizes the principle that a dielectric
gap in the conducting material causes impedance and acts like
a dam, hence enabling electricity to be stored in the circuit.
This same dielectric effect can also be used in transmission
lines. We will now examine the discharging process in a capacitor with
reference to a transmission line pulse, while taking care not to
ignore Ampère's Circuital Law. A general principle will be proposed
in which an electric circulation commences at the contact point
of discharge, and that this circulation expands in two opposite directions,
eating its way backwards into the original charged zone while simultaneously
extending forwards beyond it, such as to create a region that is twice
as long as the original zone, but exhibiting a lesser degree of linear
polarization.
G4 - The Centrifugal Force and the Coriolis Force
Abstract.
In 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
de Coriolis wrote a paper in which he mathematically
derived equations of motion for rotating coordinate systems
[1]. In this paper he drew attention to two categories of supplementary
forces. Coriolis referred to these forces in the plural. The
forces in the first category were the ordinary centrifugal forces,
while the forces in the second category were described as being
equal to twice the product of the angular velocity of the mobile
plane, taken with respect to the relative momentum as projected unto
that plane. By analogy with the mathematical formula for the ordinary
centrifugal forces, Coriolis called this second category of supplementary
forces "The compound centrifugal forces". This paper aims
to establish the fundamental physical cause behind centrifugal force
as well as its connection with the medium for the propagation of light.
[1] Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis, «Sur les équations du mouvement relatif
des systèmes de corps», J. de L'Ecole Royale Polytechnique,
24th cahier, p. 142, 1835.
H4 - The Centrifugal Force Argument
Abstract.
The modern teaching is that centrifugal
force only exists in a rotating frame of reference and
that the only force that acts in an inertial frame of reference
when a body undergoes circular motion is an inward acting centripetal
force. On the contrary however it is here proposed that a rotating
frame of reference, rather than creating an inertial centrifugal
force, actually masks a hithertofore unrecognized inertial centripetal
force. When the books are correctly balanced, it will be demonstrated
that centrifugal force is a real force, closely related to kinetic
energy, and observable in any frame of reference.
I4 - The Speed of Light
Abstract.
The aether (or electricity)
is a fluid-like substance that is the stuff of all matter
and space, and it flows constantly between positive and
negative particles, with particles being merely aether sources
and aether sinks. Space is densely packed with aether sinks
(electrons) and aether sources (positrons). These electrons and
positrons are paired into tiny dipoles. Within each dipole, the
electron and the positron will undergo a mutual circular orbit.
In the steady state, these tiny dipolar aether vortices will align
with their neighbours according to two superimposed principles.
Their rotation axes will mutually align and trace out solenoidal lines
around a magnetic dipole. The resulting electron-positron double
helix that winds its way around each such line is what causes the
electrostatic tension that makes it into a 'magnetic line of force'.
When large scale aether flow, constituting either an externally
applied gravitational field or an electric current (electric field),
is superimposed, the tiny vortices will become linearly polarized.
This will result in a 'couple force' acting on the tiny vortices which
will cause them to precess such that their precessional axes will
be aligned with the externally applied field lines. Centrifugal pressure
therefore acts at right angles to both magnetic and electric lines
of force. In the dynamic state the alignment of the dipoles is undergoing
change and the tiny dipoles will be angularly accelerating, either
in magnitude or direction (precession). This realignment will be accompanied
by a net vortex flow of pressurized aether that passes between neighbouring
dipoles. This net flow of momentum is electromagnetic radiation and it
has a wave-like nature, in that the flow will constantly be emerging
from positrons and sinking into electrons. The average speed of this
flow is what determines the speed of light.
L4
- Galilean Invariance and Mach's Principle
Abstract.
Galileo's «Principle
of Relativity» omits any consideration of an absolute
frame of reference with respect to which motion is measured.
Kinetic energy would appear to be a relative quantity whose
magnitude depends on the chosen frame of reference, or in the case
of its centrifugal force derivative, depends on which polar origin
is chosen. The magnitude of any physical interaction involving
two bodies is only ever dependent on their relative velocity, and
there seems to be no way of exposing the existence of any special frame
of reference with respect to which linear kinetic energy is an absolute
physical quantity. The fact of centrifugal force however does indicate
that such a frame of reference must exist, and that this frame appears
to be embedded in a medium that is in a state of zero rotation relative
to the fixed background stars. Rotation relative to the fixed background
stars induces centrifugal force, which suggests that kinetic energy
is indeed an absolute physical quantity that is induced by the interaction
of a moving body with a physical medium which pervades all of space.
In this article it will be proposed that the physical medium for the
propagation of light is also the cause of kinetic energy and centrifugal
force, and we will be reminded that Maxwell's equations are formulated
specifically with this medium as the standard of rest. Important questions
relating to the motion of this luminiferous medium relative
to the planets and the stars will then be discussed.
M4
- The Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
It is proposed that all space is
permeated with a dense electrically neutral sea of electrons
and positrons which serves as the medium for the propagation
of light. The challenge remains to devise a stable bonding mechanism
within this luminiferous medium that conforms with Maxwell's equations
by providing the necessary solidity and the physical mechanism
that will give rise to the characteristics of electromagnetic waves,
while at the same time allowing for the fluidity that would avoid
the problem of friction in the planetary orbits.
M4'
- The Electron-Positron Sea
(A slightly revised version
of the previous paper - October
2017)
N4 -
Newton's Cradle Disproves Einstein's Theories of Relativity
Abstract.
The counter intuitive behaviour of
the Newton's Cradle is not, as is generally believed, adequately
explained in the literature. In particular, two important
issues are overlooked. One of these is that the elasticity
of the balls arises due to the fact that the balls are made of
hard material that doesn't easily deform during the collisions,
when in fact we might have expected the hard material to have actually
reduced the elasticity. This therefore rules out linear elasticity
and Hooke's law as being the principle action, and so it is proposed
that the energy waves that transfer the kinetic energy through the
row of balls are based on fine-grained rotational elasticity, similar
in nature to that which arises in electromagnetic radiation. The
other overlooked issue is that the kinetic energy waves that move
through the metal balls immediately after a collision, move either
to the right or to the left of the point of impact, or in both directions,
but since energy transfer inside the balls has an absolute motion relative
to the balls themselves, then whether the energy within the balls
moves to the right, or to the left, or in both directions, must depend
on the absolute motion of the balls. The direction of the energy transfer
within the balls cannot depend on an arbitrary choice of rest frame.
It therefore remains to determine the physical basis for absolute motion
and kinetic energy. Only then, in terms of absolute motion, can the Newton's
cradle be correctly analyzed.
O4 - Magnetic
Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
Abstract.
The counterintuitive gravity defying
behaviour that is exhibited by a pivoted gyroscope suggests
the involvement of an active spin-induced force, similar in
nature to the magnetic force, F = qv×B,
and which cannot be predicted by Newtonian mechanics. The phenomenon
of gyroscopic stability exhibits a strong reactance which cannot
be accounted for by the moment of inertia. The physical connection
between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will be investigated.
O4'
- Magnetic Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
New revised version: 10th October 2015
This paper has been amended: "The essence
of the change is that I have now firmly concluded that the
inertial forces arise directly from Newton's laws of motion
and not as supplements. Polar coordinates exposes the inertial
forces in an inertial frame of reference". Here it is the new abstract:
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour
that is exhibited by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement
of an active spin-induced force, similar in nature to the magnetic
force, F = qv×B. The phenomenon of gyroscopic
stability exhibits a strong spin-induced reactance which cannot
be accounted for by the moment of inertia alone. The physical
connection between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will
be investigated.
P4 -
Centrifugal Force and the Electron-Positron
Sea
Abstract.
We often hear it said that centrifugal
force is not a real force and that it is only the effects
of inertia that are caused by a body undergoing its uniform
straight line path, as per Newton's first law of motion. These
effects of inertia however are very real and this suggests that
the inertial path itself must have an underlying physical cause.
This cause will now be ascribed to a background elasticity that
is rooted in electrostatics. The electric dipole, with its inverse
cube law field, will be proposed as the primary physical cause
of centrifugal force, while the inertial path and the Mach Principle
will be seen to result from the compound effect of a dense multitude
of superimposed dipole fields filling all of space.
Q4
- Wikipedia and Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia
that anybody can edit. The content changes on a continual
basis. One of the rules is that editors must not insert original
research. The contents must reflect what is stated in reliable
sources. In the case of the centrifugal force article however,
reliable sources don’t always agree, and over the years, the inability
of editors at that article to consider the totality of existing knowledge
on the subject has led to never ending discussions and edit wars. An
example of the confusion that surrounds this topic can be found at
this web link,
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/37968/centrifugal-force-and-polar-coordinates
R4 -
Wikipedia and Coriolis Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia
that anybody can edit. The content changes on a daily basis.
One of the rules for editing is that editors must not insert
original research. The contents must reflect exactly what is stated
in reliable sources. Reliable sources present Coriolis force
as an artefact of making observations from a rotating frame of reference.
When stationary objects are viewed from a rotating frame of reference,
it's true that the effects are unequivocally fictitious. However, in
situations where an entire system is rotating, the Coriolis force can
be very real, and this fact tends to cause confusion. It will be argued
that in the former case scenarios there is no Coriolis force present
at all, real or fictitious, while in the latter case scenarios the
Coriolis force is due to Newton's laws of motion, and that it already
exists independently of the rotating frame of reference.
S4
- The 1856 Weber-Kohlrausch Experiment (The Speed of Light)
(New revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
Nineteenth century physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Gustav
Kirchhoff, and James Clerk-Maxwell are all credited with connecting
electricity to the speed of light. Weber's breakthrough in 1856, in
conjunction with Rudolf Kohlrausch, revealed the speed of light in
the context of a ratio as between two different units of electric charge.
In 1857 Kirchhoff connected this ratio to the speed of an electric signal
travelling along a wire. Later, in 1862, Maxwell connected this ratio
to the elasticity in the all-pervading luminiferous medium that serves
as the carrier of light waves. This paper sets out to establish the
fundamental cause of the speed of light.
T4
- Compressed Orbits and the Secret Behind E = mc²
Abstract.
On the astronomical scale, the potential energy
in a closed orbit is due to the gravitational force of attraction.
These are uncompressed orbits. The gravitational force is opposed
by a centrifugal force acting internally from within the system.
This article will now consider the nature of the potential energy in
a system of multiple orbits that are pressing against each other with
centrifugal force while striving to dilate. Centrifugal potential energy
is shown to lie at the root of the famous equation E = mc²
.
U4
- Atomic Clocks and Gravitational Field Strength
Abstract.
A redefinition of potential energy better emphasizes
the physical reality of gravitational field strength. The current
definition only deals with motion on the large scale and not with
the fine-grained motions at molecular level which are relevant to
the mechanism of atomic clocks.
V4
- The Inertial Helicopter
Abstract.
A sea level object that is moving horizontally at
a speed greater than 8 km/sec is already in orbit and it will rise
upwards due to centrifugal force. Two such objects tethered together
while moving in opposite directions should therefore spiral upwards
like a helicopter. It will be proposed that the atom is a dipole,
and that it is the fundamental helicopter.
W4
- The Double Helix and the Electron-Positron Aether
(New revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
This article takes a closer look at the bonding and
stability mechanisms within the electron-positron dipole sea and
how these result in the double helix theory of the magnetic field.
The physical connection between the inertial forces and magnetic
repulsion will be further investigated.
X4
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
Abstract.
This article follows on from previous papers on the
double helix theory of the magnetic field. A closer look will be
taken at the low energy electromagnetic radiation that is confined
to a solenoidal path along the field lines within a near magnetic
field, such as occurs in a transmission line pulse.
X4'
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
(A new revised version
of the previous paper: 16.I.2021)
Abstract.
This paper has now been updated following a realization that,
since flowing aether cannot pass laterally through itself, then wireless
EM radiation can only propagate beyond the near magnetic field when the
tiny vortices that fill all of space are in a state of precession. This
would only occur in the transient state, particularly when the source current
is AC
Y4
- Induction of Electrostatic Repulsion by Strong Gravity (The
Link between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
Abstract.
The radial lines of force that are associated with Gauss's
law indicate the presence of fluid-like sinks and sources in matter,
whether or not we know where these lead to. This article will examine
how two sinks can be either mutually attractive or mutually repulsive
depending on the rate of flow.
Z4
- The Pendulum and the Magnetic Connection
Abstract.
When analyzing pendulum motion, textbooks avoid invoking
centrifugal force. All upward acting forces are accounted for by
the tension in the rod. This tension must however be greater in magnitude
than gravity in order for a net upward force to be possible. The role
of centrifugal force in both the simple pendulum and the conical pendulum
will therefore be re-examined, and a connection with magnetic repulsion
will be suggested.
A5
- An Interpretation of Faraday's Lines of Force
Abstract.
The magnetic field is solenoidal, yet the Biot-Savart Law
which is the textbook equation for the magnetic field, indicates the
existence of a singularity owing to the fact that it involves an inverse
square law in distance. This dilemma is solved within the context that
an individual magnetic line of force constitutes a double helix of sinks
and sources closed on itself to form a toroidal ring vortex.
- - - - -
4.X.2019:
With the following 7 last papers, F.D. Tombe concludes
his monumental work aiming to a comparison betewen classical Maxwell
electromagnetism and the (special) theory of relativity introduced
by Albert Einstein.
B5 - The Full
Significance of the Speed of Light
Abstract.
In the year 1855, German physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber
and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed a landmark experiment of profound significance.
By discharging a Leyden jar (a capacitor), they linked the speed of
light to the ratio between electrostatic and electrodynamic units of
charge. This experiment was electromagnetism's Rosetta Stone because
the result can be used to, (i) identify the speed of light as the speed
of circulation of electric current, (ii) identify the speed of light as
the speed of electromagnetic waves through a dielectric solid that
pervades all of space, while noting that inertial centrifugal force
and dipole fields share in common an inverse cube law in distance. The
result can also be used to, (iii) identify magnetic repulsion as a centrifugal
force, and hence to establish the double helix pattern that characterizes
magnetic lines of force.
C5 - Straight
Line Motion
Abstract.
The straight line inertial path will be examined from the
perspective that it is caused by pressure equilibrium in a sea of
tiny aethereal whirlpools that are pressing against each other with
centrifugal force while striving to dilate. This is opposite to the
traditional perspective whereby centrifugal force is considered to
be a consequence of the tendency of a body to move in uniform straight
line motion in the absence of any Newtonian forces.
D5 - Faraday's
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Abstract.
It will be shown how the magnetic vector potential, A,
is a momentum which is central to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, and how the convective electromagnetic force E =
v×B is the factor which enables the total time derivative
to be used in Faraday's law.
E5
- The Significance of the Inertial Forces in Electromagnetism
Abstract.
The centrifugal force and the Coriolis force will be described.
There is a controversy over whether these forces are real or fictitious.
This controversy will be examined in conjunction with its significance
to electromagnetism.
F5 - Isotropy
in the Electromagnetic Field
Abstract.
In Part III of his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force,
James Clerk Maxwell introduces the concept of displacement current
in connection with the elasticity of the medium for the propagation
of light. During the course of Part III, the luminiferous medium changes
from an anisotropic sea of molecular vortices into an isotropic dielectric
solid. An attempt will be made to reconcile these two seemingly contradictory
mediums.
G5 - Cable Telegraphy
and Poynting's Theorem
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the
waves that travel alongside the conducting wires in transmission lines
relate to linear polarization. This article will examine how these two
phenomena may or may not be treated using the same basic electromagnetic
wave equations.
G5' - Cable
Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 14.II.2020)
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization
while the magnetic fields that travel alongside the conducting wires
in transmission lines are commonly associated with capacitance and linear
polarization. This article will examine how these two phenomena may
or may not be treated using the same basic electromagnetic wave equations.
G5'' - Cable
Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 7.I.2021)
"I have been looking again at the differences and similarities
between wireless EM radiation and transmission line pulses, and I finally
came to the conclusion that the Poynting Vector, ExH,
does indeed apply in both cases, but of course with the Faraday E
in the wireless case and the Coulomb E in the cable case. Previously,
I had wrongly argued that it only holds in the wireless case, and I based
that argument on the fact that Poynting's theorem hinges on Faraday's law.
However, it suddenly dawned on me that the Poynting vector itself doesn't
necessarily hinge on Poynting's theorem and that Poynting's theorem merely
only applies to time varying-electromagnetic induction. Transmission line
pulses are however convective phenomena, and just because Poynting's theorem
doesn't apply, doesn't mean that we can't have a Poynting vector telling
us the rate of energy flow in a transmission line pulse".
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the
electrostatic and magnetic fields that travel alongside the conducting
wires in transmission lines are associated with capacitance and linear
polarization. This article will examine how these two phenomena may
or may not be treated using the same electromagnetic wave equations.
H5 - Radiation
Pressure and E = mc2
Abstract.
To show that the equation E = mc2 was already
implicit in Maxwell's 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force
and that it doesn't mean that mass is equivalent to energy, but rather
it relates to the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through an
elastic solid.
I5
- Einstein's Big Mistake
From the Introduction:
Einstein overlooked the fact that the speed of light, as it
occurs in the Lorentz transformation equations, is determined by the
density and elasticity of a physical medium which pervades all of space,
and which acts as the medium for the propagation of light waves. This
fact had already been established by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell,
(1831-1879), who happened to die in the same year that Einstein was born.
The physical medium in question was known to Maxwell as the luminiferous
medium although Einstein later referred to it as a Lichtäthers (luminiferous
aether). Maxwell provided us with a reasonably clear picture of what
the physical structure of this medium would need to be. He proposed that
all of space is filled with a sea of molecular vortices comprised of tiny
aethereal whirlpools, each surrounded by electric particles. This was an
idea, which according to Tesla in 1907, had in essence, long been known to
men of old.
14.V.2021: A new paper, "in
response to issues arising on a discussion thread".
J5
- Aether Friction in the Planetary Orbits
Abstract.
When a theory of electromagnetism promotes the idea that the medium
for the propagation of light waves is an elastic solid comprised of
electric particles, the question is always going to be asked as to why
this medium would not generate friction in the planetary orbits, such
as would cause the planets to spiral into the Sun. It would be impossible
for a moving body to completely avoid any physical interaction with these
electric particles, and so, in order to comply with Kepler's Laws of Planetary
Motion, this interaction must be the actual cause of the inertial forces,
as opposed to being the cause of any dissipative friction.
J5'
- Aether Friction in the Planetary Orbits
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 21.IX.2021)
"I have made some amendments to this article. The essence of
the changes is mainly to emphasize the fact that entrainment of the
luminiferous medium by gravity is necessary in order for centrifugal
force to be an actual physical repulsion. This was implied in the original
version, but now it is emphasized".
21.IX.2021: "Despite having intended in 2019
to stop writing physics articles, I continued to be involved in discussion
threads. Answering questions caused me to come up with new ideas as well
as better ways to express my older ideas. As such I ended up writing more
articles. It is still nevertheless my intention to move on to other interests
in the near future".
K5
- Centrifugal Force in the Schwarzschild Field
"An attempt to reconcile General Relativity with aether theory.
The presence of the aether as an absolute standard of rest, removes
the paradoxes from STR".
Abstract.
Centrifugal force is an inertial effect which is induced by motion
through the Minkowski 4D space-time continuum. While it can act in opposition
to gravity, there is evidence from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity,
that gravity, if strong enough, can affect the physical structure of the
4D space-time continuum in such a way as to destroy the centrifugal force
and convert it into an electrostatic force of attraction that augments
the gravity. The physical nature of centrifugal force and the manner in
which it can be altered by gravity will now be investigated.
L5
- The Physical Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
"I wrote the attached paper in order to show readers Maxwell's
derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1873 Treatise.
The paper works through the derivation with a link supplied to the 1873
paper, and my summary uses modern vector notation and SI units".
Abstract.
Since Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell wrote his Treatise
in 1873, it has generally been believed that wireless electromagnetic
radiation consists of sinusoidally oscillating electric and magnetic fields,
perpendicular to each other and mutually perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. The reasons as to why Maxwell concluded these mutually
perpendicular orientations will now be investigated, as will the issue
of the relative phase in time as between these electric and magnetic
disturbances.
M5
- The Apparent Dual Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
Abstract.
The Planck-Einstein relation, E = hf, relates the energy of discrete
pulses of black body radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays to their wave frequency.
This relationship appears to contradict the wave theory of light. An investigation
will now take place regarding whether the Planck-Einstein relation, and
Planck's constant itself, lie in the domain of the medium for the propagation
of light, or in the vestibule of the atom, or in both.
N5
- The Positronium Orbit in the Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
The purpose is to show that the equation E = mc2 was already
implicit in Maxwell's 1861 paper "On Physical Lines of Force" and that
it doesn't mean that mass is equivalent to energy, but rather it relates
to the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through a sea of rotating
electron-positron dipoles which pervades all of space.
O5-
The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field
(A "very much refined version" of the previous
paper A,
and successive revisions)
Abstract.
The historical linkage between optics and electromagnetism can be traced
back to the year 1855, when Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch,
by discharging a Leyden Jar (a capacitor), demonstrated that the ratio of
the electrostatic and electrodynamic units of charge is equal to c√2, where
c is the directly measured speed of light. Although not initially aware
of the connection to the speed of light, Weber interpreted c√2 as a kind
of mutual escape velocity for two elements of electricity in relative motion,
such as would enable the induced magnetic force to overcome the mutual electrostatic
force. A few years later, James Clerk Maxwell converted this ratio from
electrodynamic units to electromagnetic units, hence exposing the speed
of light directly. On connecting Weber’s ratio to the dielectric constant
in an all-pervading elastic solid, Maxwell concluded that light consists
in the transverse undulations of the same medium that is the cause of electric
and magnetic phenomena. The differing perspectives of Weber and Maxwell can
be reconciled by linking the speed of light to the circumferential speed
of the electric particles surrounding the tiny molecular vortices that Maxwell
believed to be the constituent units of the luminiferous medium. If we consider
these molecular vortices to be tiny electric current circulations, mutually
aligned along their rotation axes to form magnetic lines of force, magnetic
repulsion can then be explained in terms of centrifugal pressure acting
sideways from these field lines. And if these molecular vortices should take
the more precise dipolar form of an electron and a positron in mutual orbit,
we can then further explain magnetic attraction, this time in terms of the
more fundamental electrostatic force being channeled along the double helix
of electrons and positrons that forms a magnetic line of force.
P5
- The Lorentz Aether Theory
Abstract.
The Lorentz transformations are best known for the relativistic Lorentz
factor, 1/√(1 – v2/c2), which appears in the equations
of special relativity. It is also known that the Lorentz transformations
can be used to derive the Biot-Savart law in the form B = μ0ε0v×E
and also the Maxwell-Lorentz force in the form E = v×B.
What is not well-known however is that the emergence of these two cross-product
equations has got no bearing on the Lorentz factor itself. It is often argued
that the magnetic force E = v×B is a relativistic effect,
yet it clearly isn't. While the connection between the Lorentz transformations
and the return-path Doppler effect in light is a matter of interest, this
article will take a closer look at the classical origins of the two vector
cross-product equations that emerge from the Lorentz transformations alongside
the Lorentz factor, but independently of it.
Q5
- The Rattleback and the Magnus Force
Abstract.
The rattleback (Celtic stone) is the most mysterious phenomenon
in classical mechanics. It freely undergoes a complete reversal of its angular
momentum without the involvement of any apparent external torque. This mystery
will now be investigated at the atomic and molecular level.
R5
- The Absolute Direction of Alternating Current
Electric energy that is generated at a power station flows in one direction
only, away from the station and to the consumer, yet the electric current
itself alternates to-and-fro. How can this be possible? We will seek to solve
this mystery.
R5'
- The Absolute Direction of Alternating Current
(A new revised version
of the previous paper: 9.IX.2022)
"I've amended the attached paper to emphasize
the fact that the circulatory motion in each AC cycle is of a caterpillar
track nature, as opposed to a slipping wheel nature".
Abstract.
The Mystery - Electric energy that is generated at a power station flows
in one direction only, away from the station and to the consumer, yet, at
both the generator end and at the consumer end, the electric current itself
alternates to-and-fro. How can this be possible? We will now take a closer
look at the transient state that arises in an electric circuit during the
first moments after the power is connected, or after each moment of direction
reversal in the case of AC. It’s only in the transient state that transmission
occurs, whether it be wireless transmission or cable transmission.
___________________________________________________________________________