FORUM DI EPISTEME
Maxwell's sea
of molecular vortices 1861,
the inspiration
for "The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field"
_____________________________________________________________
4 - Frederick
David Tombe
sirius184@hotmail.com
- - - - -
The following 1st July 2010 revision of "The Double
Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field" summarizes all the most important
issues that have been covered in the various revisions since the
original paper of 15th February 2006.
Abstract.
In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch
performed an experiment with a Leyden Jar which showed
that the ratio of the quantity of electricity when
measured statically, to the same quantity of electricity
when measured electrodynamically, is numerically equal
to the directly measured speed of light. In 1861, in his paper
entitled ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, James Clerk-Maxwell
equated the above ratio with the ratio of the dielectric
constant to the magnetic permeability. In the same paper,
Maxwell modeled Faraday’s magnetic lines of force using a sea
of molecular vortices that were composed partly of aether
and partly of ordinary matter. He linked the dielectric constant
to the transverse elasticity of this vortex sea, and he linked
the magnetic permeability to the density. Since Newton’s equation
for the speed of sound involves the ratio of the transverse
elasticity to the density, Maxwell was able to use Weber’s constant
to show that light is a wave in the same medium that is the
cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. It will now be suggested
that Maxwell’s molecular vortices are more accurately represented
with rotating electron-positron dipoles that are aligned in a double
helix fashion with their mutual rotation axes tracing out the magnetic
lines of force.
May 2016 - A new version
of the previous paper:
Abstract.
The historical linkage between optics and electromagnetism
can be traced back to a paper published in the year 1856 by Wilhelm
Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. By discharging a Leyden Jar
(a capacitor), they showed that the ratio of the electromagnetic and
electrostatic units of charge is numerically equal to the directly
measured speed of light. Weber interpreted this result as meaning that
the speed of light is a kind of escape velocity for electricity in motion,
such as would enable the associated magnetic force to overcome the electrostatic
force. An alternative interpretation was advanced a few years later
by James Clerk-Maxwell who connected the result to the elasticity in
an all pervading solid medium that serves as the carrier of light waves.
As a consequence, he concluded that light waves are electromagnetic undulations.
These two perspectives can be reconciled by linking the speed of light
to the circumferential speed of the molecular vortices which Maxwell
believed to be the constituent particles of the solid luminiferous
medium. If we consider these molecular vortices to be tiny electric
current circulations, magnetic repulsion can then be explained in terms
of centrifugal force. And if these molecular vortices should take the
form of an electron and a positron in mutual orbit, we can then also explain
magnetic attraction in terms of the more fundamental electrostatic force
being channeled through space along double helix chains that constitute
magnetic lines of force.
* * * * *
B - Gravitation,
Electrostatics, and the
Electron-Positron Aether (Ether)
(Based on
the 1982 paper by David Tombe, entitled "Electrogravitomagnetism")
[22nd August 2008 - This paper has been totally withdrawn, for the reason that it centres around a theory
which attempts to rationalize inertial mass as being related
to the sum of the "modulus" of the electric charge in
a body. More recently, I have been working on a different
principle as explained in the paper at N2 entitled "Negative
Mass and the Gravity Sink". The ideas contained
in this paper concerning inertial mass were only peripheral to
the main theme regarding an electron-positron luminiferous medium.
These ideas concerning inertial mass have now been superseded
by a new theory which involves absolute values as opposed to 'modulus'
values of charge .
(We maintain nevertheless a
copy of the paper for history's sake.)
3rd November 2011
- A comment from the author. There is really no
important need to withdraw this paper. I am once again
of the opinion, as was stated in the paper, that mass is
a cumulative quantity based on all the particles in a body.
I can add that it is widely believed, due to a common error
in the secondary literature, that Maxwell conceived of displacement
current in connection with the electric capacitor circuit. In
actual fact, Maxwell's original paper of 1861, part III, indicates
that he did not conceive of displacement current in connection
with the electric capacitor circuit. This paper, based on research
done in 1982, perpetrates that common error, and the author has
corrected it in future articles. The author also now notes that
the displacement current term as is used in the derivation of the
electromagnetic wave equation, should be magnetization based,
and not linear polarization based. In other words, it should be a
rotatory effect and not a linear effect.]
23rd January 2011 - This paper has been fully
revised, here is in red a comment from the author (we maintain
previous comments again for history's sake).
- This article was written
in 2003 based on original material from 1982, without
any revision of the core ideas. Research was commenced again
in 2004. As a result of seven further years of investigation,
comments have now been added in red by the author, in
order to draw attention to the revised views in the light of the
more recent research. The first issue concerns the title itself.
The electron-positron sea is not the aether as such. Positrons are
aether sources and electrons are aether sinks. The electrons and
positrons are paired in mutual orbits to form rotating dipoles, and
as such the electron-positron medium for the propagation of light
is actually a sea of tiny dipolar aether whirlpools.
E - Gravity Reversal
and Atomic Bonding
(A Theory of Mutually Attracting Sinks)
[Note of the Editor: As far as
the following assertion
is concerne d:
«
the Earth's magnetic
field is explained by virtue
of the fact that the Earth is a rotating negatively
charged object»
, the reader could be interested
even in the paper presented in next
point 8.]
(The
Epicycle Theory of the Atom)
(New
revised version: 5th August 2008)
I - Charge, Spin,
and 'Charge to Mass'
Ratio
(A Unified
Theory of Gravity and Electricity)
22nd August 2008: This paper has
been
totally withdrawn
(together with paper
B)
, for the reason
that it centres around a theory which
attempts to rationalize inertial mass
as being related to the sum of the "modulus"
of the electric charge in a body. More recently,
I have been working on a different principle
as explained in the paper at N2 entitled "Negative
Mass and the Gravity Sink".
The ideas contained in this
paper concerning inertial mass were only
peripheral to the main theme regarding an electron-positron
luminiferous medium. These ideas
concerning inertial mass have now been superseded
by a new theory which involves absolute values
as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge,
and the theories concerning centrifugal
force and Coriolis force contained within this
paper have been expanded upon in the paper at Q2 entitled
"The Cause of Centrifugal Force"
.
(We maintain nevertheless a copy of
the paper for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 5th August 2008)
L -
The Aether
and the Electric Sea
(The
Link between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
(New
revised version: 18th February 2009)
(New
revised version: 5th March 2009)
New revised
version: 18th March 2009
( "The amendment
changed a paragraph in the section about
inertia")
(New
revised version of L: 2nd June 2009
"Another
section mentioning inertia was removed". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
(New
revised version of U': 2nd June 2009
"This
was a major amendment based on the realization that
the Coriolis force is a real transverse force that
arises in connection with the conservation of
angular momentum". We maintain nevertheless a
copy of the previous paper for history's sake.)
Y - The Four Kinds of Electric
Charge
(A vitreous
electricity explanation for infinite supplies
of electric charge)
(New
revised version: 24th September 2008)
(New revised
version: 14th December 2008)
(New revised
version: 2nd June 2009
"A
general re-wording without any major change in the
content".)
A2' - Bernoulli's
Principle and the Theory of Flight
(New revised version of A2:
2nd June 2009
"This
was a major re-write with an increased emphasis on
the role of the centrifugal force in the air
molecules". We maintain nevertheless a
copy of the previous paper for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 18th May 2008)
(New revised
version: 18th February 2009)
H2 - Bernoulli's Principle and
the AC Transformer
(New revised
version: 18th May 2008)
October
2016 - A new version of the previous paper (this new version
disregards matters to do with capacitance as they are a red herring
to the main issue: that charge is something that must flow net
into the circuit from the power source; the idea is that charge is
the pressure in an electric fluid and that Bernoulli's principle in
conjunction with conservation of power is the governing feature in a
transformer circuit; the older version side-tracks too much to the
subject of capacitance, and it doesn't sufficiently emphasize the fact
that charge must enter net as like pressurized water into the water supply
network):
Abstract.
The AC transformer is a transducer which
converts between potential energy and kinetic energy. A step-up
transformer increases the voltage and decreases the current while
a step-down transformer does the opposite. Despite the low current,
streaks of lightning arc out from high voltage cross country power
cables when earthed objects get too close. The physical nature of voltage
will now be examined.
N2 - Negative Mass and
the Gravity Sink
O2 - The General Convective Force
(A General
Survey of the Coriolis force and the Centrifugal
force)
(New
revised version: 9th June 2008)
(New
revised version: 19th August 2008
)
P2
-
Centrifugal
Force in the Electric Circuit
(New
revised version: 28th December 2008:
"The
focus was in amending the section on EM induction
in relation to Coriolis Force", see
T2 and T2')
(New revised
version: 29th January 2009)
New
revised version: 18th March 2009
("The wording in the centrifugal force
section was improved to emphasize the
extrapolation of the general principle of centrifugal
force to the four body problem in which two
closed orbital systems sit side by side, and therefore
must repel each other ")
P2' -
Centrifugal Force in the Electric Circuit
(New
revised version of P2: 2nd June 2009
"This revision goes into much
more detail on the role of the Coriolis
force in the induction of current in a wire that
is moving through a magnetic field". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous paper for history's
sake.)
(New
revised version: 19th August 2008
)
(New
revised version: 7th December 2008
)
(New revised
version: 5th March 2009)
Q2' - The Cause of Centrifugal Force
(New revised version of Q2:
2nd June 2009
"This
was a major re-write based on the realization that
the inverse cube law points to a dipole field".
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
(New
revised version: 28th August 2008
)
(New revised
version: 14th December 2008)
S2 - The Coriolis Force and the Screw
* 30.XI.2011: This paper has now
been withdrawn, but you can still read it with an author's remark.
T2 -
Areal Velocity, Coriolis Force,
and Vorticity
T2' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New revised
version of T2: 28th December 2008)
"T2' is a
major amendment. I've taken all the contents into
what is effectively a new paper". We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the previous paper for history's
sake.
( New revised
version: 5th March 2009)
T2'' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New
revised version of T2': 2nd June 2009)
"This
was a major re-write based on a clearer division
between transverse Coriolis force and axial Coriolis
force" .
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.
U2 -
Displacement Current
(New revised
version: 14th December 2008)
V2 - Displacement
Current 2
(New
revised version: 18th February 2009)
Y2 - Wave/Particle Duality in Electromagnetic
Radiation
Z2 -
Wave/Particle Duality
in Cathode Rays
A3 -
Cathode Rays, Gravity, and Electromagnetic
Radiation
(New revised
version: 14th December 2008)
B3 -
Tangential Force – The
Equilibrium Shifter
(New revised
version: 29th January 2009)
New revised
version: 18th March 2009 (" Appendix
B was removed as it was a bit hard to read,
and out of context, and it will be the
subject of a separate paper some time in the future
")
B3' -
Lenz's Law
(New
revised version of B3: 5th November 2009
This
is a major re-write of the previous paper,
we maintain nevertheless a copy of the older one for history's
sake.)
C3 - The Key
that Winds up the Universe
New revised
version: 18th March 2009 (" Large,
somewhat confusing sections on 'inertia' were
removed. A new paper on inertia will be
written some time in the future")
D3
-
Electromagnetism
and the Rolling Wheel
E3 - The Superimposition of Radiation
and Gravity
New revised
version: 5th March 2009
F3 - The Rotationally Elastic Sponge
G3 - Kepler's Law of Areal Velocity
in Cyclones
H3 -
Inertia and the Electric Sea
I3 -
The Coriolis
Force is a System of Accountancy for Real Forces
J3 -
The Physical Nature of
the Coriolis Force
Un nuovo
lavoro, febbraio 2010 - A new paper, February 2010:
K3 - Maxwell's
Sea of Molecular Vortices
L3 -
Magnetic Repulsion and Centrifugal Force
(April 2010)
M3 - The Electric Rings of Force that cause the
Tides
(September
2010)
N3 - The Coriolis Force and
the Aether (The Compound Centrifugal Force)
(December 2010)
Abstract.
The Coriolis
force is induced by a compound motion involving two
independent yet physically connected motions, one of
which is linear and the other which must be of a rotatory
nature. In a paper which he wrote in 1835, French scientist
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis referred to it as the "compound
centrifugal force ". Just like centrifugal force, it acts
to deflect an element perpendicularly to its path of motion,
but its mathematical expression is exactly twice that of the
simple centrifugal force. It is commonly associated with atmospheric
cyclones, but it can also be observed deflecting the effect of
gravity on a comet, reversing a rotating rattleback (Celtic stone),
preventing a pivoted spinning gyroscope from toppling under the force
of gravity, and driving an electric current in a wire that is moving
perpendicularly to a magnetic field. The origins of the Coriolis
force will now be traced to differential centrifugal pressure and
differential vorticity in the dense background sea of tiny aether vortices
which serves as the medium for the propagation of light.
Abstract.
The
rattleback (Celtic Stone) is the most mysterious phenomenon
in classical mechanics. It reverses its angular momentum
by inducing a Coriolis pressure from the dense background
sea of rotating electron-positron dipoles which is the
medium for the propagation of light.
P3 - The Centrifugal Force Paradox
(April 2011)
Abstract.
It
is commonly taught nowadays that centrifugal force
doesn't exist, except as a fictitious force that is only
observable from a rotating frame of reference. This belief
is based on Newton's law of inertia which states that
a body undergoing straight line motion at constant speed experiences
no net force, and that curved path motion involves only
a centripetal force. However, if we split the net zero
force of straight line constant speed motion into polar
components, we find that one of these is a centrifugal force component
which can physically react with constraints, hence revealing
an underlying pressure associated with inertia. Further evidence
that centrifugal force is a real physical force arises when
inertial pressure becomes asymmetrical, as happens in a radial
gravitational field or in a solenoidal magnetic field.
Q3 - Physical Lines of Force in
the Aether
(April 2011)
Abstract.
In
the nineteenth century, James Clerk-Maxwell was
unable to explain the linkage between gravity and electromagnetism.
He realized that gravitational lines of force must
involve a pressure, as is the case with magnetic lines of
force when they are involved in mutual repulsion. He also
realized that the pressure in the magnetic lines of force
acts laterally due to centrifugal force in a sea of molecular
vortices, but he couldn't seem to similarly explain the pressure
in the gravitational lines of force [1]. It will now be suggested
that gravitational lines of force are actually lines of tension,
and that Maxwell's molecular vortices are dielectric in nature.
The linear polarization of these dipolar vortices, caused by the
gravitational field, will increase the centrifugal pressure
which is exerted laterally, and this pressure will result in a
repulsive force in competition with the attractive force. The attractive
force, being a monopole field, will obey the inverse square law,
whereas the repulsive force, being a dipole field, will obey the inverse
cube law. Hence if the charge of an object increases, the inverse
cube law relationship for the surrounding repulsive force field
will lead to a reversal threshold, where it will dominate over
the attractive force. The charge can increase electrostatically
or because of inertia. In the latter case, the repulsive force field
is the large scale centrifugal force.
R3 - Anti-Gravity and the Flying Saucer
(May 2011)
(New amended version:
21.XI.2011)
Abstract.
There
is only one anti-gravity force, and that is positive
electric charge. Positive charge is the centrifugally
directed pressurized aether which emerges from the sources
which we understand as positively charged particles. A particular
geometrical arrangement of the positive particles of the luminiferous
medium is sought, such that it will push a flying saucer
upwards against the gravitational field.
S3 - Centrifugal Force Denial
(June
2011)
Abstract.
When
a mooring line needs to be cast from ship to shore over
a lengthy distance, this can be accomplished by utilizing
the concept of centrifugal potential energy. Swinging the
weight in circular motion in a vertical plane, and building
it up to a high angular speed is a means of storing up pressure.
The weight can then be released underarm, resulting in a projectile
with kinetic energy corresponding to the stored centrifugal
potential energy. We can of course choose to deny the existence of
this centrifugal pressure and explain the phenomenon on the grounds
that we are merely witnessing the tendency of an object to
move in a straight line in the absence of an applied force. But
we can only indulge in this denial in the absence of a radial or
a solenoidal field, and such fields exist everywhere. It will now
be shown how centrifugal force corresponds to positive electric
charge, kinetic energy, and inertia, and how a magnetic field
is a particular manifestation of inertia.
T3 - Bernoulli's Theorem and the Principle of Flight
Abstract.
When
an aeroplane moves horizontally through the air, the
air pressure below the wings is greater than the air pressure
above the wings. This causes a force to act vertically upwards
on the aeroplane, at right angles to its direction of motion.
Likewise when an electric current flows through a wire in a magnetic
field, a differential pressure is exerted on either side of the
wire, causing a force to act at right angles to the wire. In the
former case the pressure arises from the centrifugal force that
is being exerted by the air molecules, whereas in the latter case the
pressure arises from the centrifugal force that is being exerted by
the tiny molecular vortices that form the medium for the propagation
of light.
U3 - Centrifugal
Force
From F.D. Tombe:
I decided to do a paper dedicated exclusively to 'centrifugal
force'. Other papers that I have written incorporate my
views on centrifugal force, but this paper is designed to directly
counter the official mainstream point of view on centrifugal
force.
Abstract.
It is
nowadays taught that centrifugal force is
a fictitious force that can only be observed from a rotating
frame of reference. This teaching is based on the argument
that when no inward centripetal force is acting,
a particle will proceed in its straight line inertial path.
In situations where the physical effects of centrifugal force
are detected, this is dismissed as being merely the effects of
inertia. Polar coordinates relative to a point origin expose a centrifugal
force acting on a particle that is moving in a straight line, but
this centrifugal force tends to be masked from view by virtue of
the fact that the radial position vector is rotating. This article
will examine ways to expose the physical reality of the centrifugal
force.
V3 - Double Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
This article
examines a situation in which two completely separate
centrifugal forces are acting within a single rotating system.
One centrifugal force relates to the rotation axis of the
rotating system, while the other centrifugal force relates
to the centre of the Earth and the horizontal transverse speeds
within the rotating system. The latter has the power to cause
an object to rise vertically in defiance of gravity.
Z3 - The Coriolis Force (The Compound Centrifugal
Force)
Abstract.
The Coriolis
force is generally associated with the Earth's rotation,
although it can arise in connection with any kind of rotation.
In a paper which he wrote in 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis referred to it as the "compound centrifugal force",
and that is exactly what it is. It is a compound inertial force
which results when a compound motion causes two opposing centrifugal
pressures to press differentially on either side of an object.
When an object moves through the medium for the propagation of
light, this induces an inertial pressure around the object which
is manifested as kinetic energy. When this inertial pressure is asymmetrical,
such as is the case in a radial or in a solenoidal field, the asymmetry
is manifested as an inertial force. In meteorology, the asymmetry
which leads to the Coriolis force being induced in cyclones is complicated
by the fact that there are two centres of rotation involved, and hence
we are dealing with a double Coriolis force. With the double Coriolis
force in meteorology, there is the rotation that is centred on the
Earth, and there is also the rotation that is centred on the cyclone
itself.
A4 - Maxwell's Original Equations
From the Introduction:
Although Maxwell's most important
equations had already appeared throughout his seminal
paper entitled "On Physical Lines of Force", which was written
in 1861 in Great Britain, it was not until 1864 that Maxwell
created a distinct listing of eight equations in a section entitled
"General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field" in his
follow up paper entitled "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field". While Maxwell refers to twenty equations at the end
of this section, there are in fact only eight equations as such.
Maxwell arrives at the figure of twenty because he splits six
of these equations into their three Cartesian components. Maxwell's
eight original equations will be discussed in depth in individual
sections throughout this paper.
B4 - Electric Current (Cable Telegraphy and Wireless Telegraphy)
Abstract.
Poynting's theorem
applies to wireless telegraphy as well as to electric
circuits and cable telegraphy. We will therefore seek to establish
the commonality between these three phenomena.
C4 - Newton's Cradle and the Transmission Line
Abstract.
Two electric currents
flowing in opposite directions along the same wire in a
transmission line appear to pass right through each other.
We therefore require a theory of electric current that can account
for this, while at the same time maintaining consistency with Ampère's
circuital law.
D4 -
The Distortion of Maxwell's Equations
Abstract.
James Clerk-Maxwell
is credited with having brought electricity, magnetism,
and optical phenomena, together into one unified theory. The
details of what exactly he did were however seriously distorted
in twentieth century physics textbooks. Maxwell is most famous
in connection with a set of equations which bear his name, but
these equations have been totally removed from the physical context
within which Maxwell was working, and outside of that physical context
the full meaning of these equations is lost. Maxwell was working
within the context of a sea of tiny aethereal vortices pressing
against each other with centrifugal force. The centrifugal force bit
was crucial for explaining magnetic repulsion, yet both centrifugal
force and aether are stringently denied by modern physicists who nevertheless
continue to hail Maxwell for the equations that he derived by using
these very concepts which they deny. This irony seems to be explained
at least in part because they think that the equations can be re-derived
using Einstein's special theory of relativity. Such an erroneous belief
stems from the fact that one of the most important of Maxwell's equations
has been wrongly credited to Lorentz and referred to as the Lorentz
force law and treated as ‘supplementary’ to Maxwell's equations. Einstein,
being ignorant of Maxwell's original equations and the fact that they
contained the Lorentz force law, hence wrongly believed that the equations
contained no convective term, and so he made the erroneous conclusion
that Maxwell's equations mean that the speed of light must be frame independent
in contradiction of classical principles of vector addition of velocities.
This erroneous conclusion led Einstein to his special theory of relativity
in 1905, and it subsequently led to the erroneous belief amongst both
relativists and many anti-relativists, that Einstein's special theory
of relativity follows naturally from Maxwell's theory, when in fact Maxwell
and Einstein were not even remotely working along the same lines.
E4
-
The Two Kinds of Electric Charge
Abstract.
In an earlier article,
it was explained how there are four kinds of electric charge.
There are in fact only two kinds of electric charge. The
earlier article created four kinds of charge by identifying both
a simple and a compound version for each of positive and negative
charge. Simple charge was based on the tension and pressure associated
with pure aether flow, in and out of negative and positive particles,
while compound charge was about the intermediary effect of the electron-positron
dipoles that fill the space between charged bodies. A charged
body linearly polarizes the surrounding electron-positron sea
and this causes a centrifugal repulsive force to act laterally from
the field lines. It will be explained how two negative charges
may either attract or repel depending on the strength of the charge,
and hence explaining the link between gravity and electrostatics.
F4 - Electric Current and Dielectrics
Abstract.
A dielectric medium impedes electric
current due to the fact that the constituent dipoles become
linearly polarized and induce a back EMF. A capacitor in an
electric circuit utilizes the principle that a dielectric gap in
the conducting material causes impedance and acts like a dam, hence
enabling electricity to be stored in the circuit. This same dielectric
effect can also be used in transmission lines. We will now examine
the discharging process in a capacitor with reference to a transmission
line pulse, while taking care not to ignore Ampère's Circuital Law.
A general principle will be proposed in which an electric circulation
commences at the contact point of discharge, and that this circulation
expands in two opposite directions, eating its way backwards into the
original charged zone while simultaneously extending forwards beyond it,
such as to create a region that is twice as long as the original zone,
but exhibiting a lesser degree of linear polarization.
G4 - The Centrifugal Force and the Coriolis Force
Abstract.
In 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
de Coriolis wrote a paper in which he mathematically derived
equations of motion for rotating coordinate systems [1]. In
this paper he drew attention to two categories of supplementary
forces. Coriolis referred to these forces in the plural. The forces
in the first category were the ordinary centrifugal forces, while
the forces in the second category were described as being equal to
twice the product of the angular velocity of the mobile plane, taken
with respect to the relative momentum as projected unto that plane.
By analogy with the mathematical formula for the ordinary centrifugal
forces, Coriolis called this second category of supplementary forces
"The compound centrifugal forces". This paper aims to establish
the fundamental physical cause behind centrifugal force as well as
its connection with the medium for the propagation of light.
[1] Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis,
«Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de
corps», J. de L'Ecole Royale Polytechnique, 24th cahier,
p. 142, 1835.
H4 - The Centrifugal Force Argument
Abstract.
The modern teaching is that centrifugal
force only exists in a rotating frame of reference and that
the only force that acts in an inertial frame of reference
when a body undergoes circular motion is an inward acting centripetal
force. On the contrary however it is here proposed that a rotating
frame of reference, rather than creating an inertial centrifugal
force, actually masks a hithertofore unrecognized inertial centripetal
force. When the books are correctly balanced, it will be demonstrated
that centrifugal force is a real force, closely related to kinetic
energy, and observable in any frame of reference.
I4 - The Speed of Light
Abstract.
The aether (or electricity)
is a fluid-like substance that is the stuff of all matter
and space, and it flows constantly between positive and negative
particles, with particles being merely aether sources and aether
sinks. Space is densely packed with aether sinks (electrons)
and aether sources (positrons). These electrons and positrons are
paired into tiny dipoles. Within each dipole, the electron and
the positron will undergo a mutual circular orbit. In the steady
state, these tiny dipolar aether vortices will align with their
neighbours according to two superimposed principles. Their rotation
axes will mutually align and trace out solenoidal lines around a
magnetic dipole. The resulting electron-positron double helix that
winds its way around each such line is what causes the electrostatic
tension that makes it into a 'magnetic line of force'. When large
scale aether flow, constituting either an externally applied gravitational
field or an electric current (electric field), is superimposed, the
tiny vortices will become linearly polarized. This will result in
a 'couple force' acting on the tiny vortices which will cause them
to precess such that their precessional axes will be aligned with
the externally applied field lines. Centrifugal pressure therefore
acts at right angles to both magnetic and electric lines of force.
In the dynamic state the alignment of the dipoles is undergoing change
and the tiny dipoles will be angularly accelerating, either in magnitude
or direction (precession). This realignment will be accompanied by
a net vortex flow of pressurized aether that passes between neighbouring
dipoles. This net flow of momentum is electromagnetic radiation and
it has a wave-like nature, in that the flow will constantly be emerging
from positrons and sinking into electrons. The average speed of this
flow is what determines the speed of light.
L4
- Galilean Invariance and Mach's Principle
Abstract.
Galileo's «Principle
of Relativity» omits any consideration of an absolute
frame of reference with respect to which motion is measured.
Kinetic energy would appear to be a relative quantity whose magnitude
depends on the chosen frame of reference, or in the case of its
centrifugal force derivative, depends on which polar origin is chosen.
The magnitude of any physical interaction involving two bodies is
only ever dependent on their relative velocity, and there seems to
be no way of exposing the existence of any special frame of reference
with respect to which linear kinetic energy is an absolute physical
quantity. The fact of centrifugal force however does indicate that
such a frame of reference must exist, and that this frame appears
to be embedded in a medium that is in a state of zero rotation relative
to the fixed background stars. Rotation relative to the fixed background
stars induces centrifugal force, which suggests that kinetic energy
is indeed an absolute physical quantity that is induced by the interaction
of a moving body with a physical medium which pervades all of space.
In this article it will be proposed that the physical medium for the
propagation of light is also the cause of kinetic energy and centrifugal
force, and we will be reminded that Maxwell's equations are formulated
specifically with this medium as the standard of rest. Important questions
relating to the motion of this luminiferous medium relative
to the planets and the stars will then be discussed.
M4
- The Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
It is proposed that all space is permeated
with a dense electrically neutral sea of electrons and positrons
which serves as the medium for the propagation of light. The
challenge remains to devise a stable bonding mechanism within
this luminiferous medium that conforms with Maxwell's equations by
providing the necessary solidity and the physical mechanism that
will give rise to the characteristics of electromagnetic waves,
while at the same time allowing for the fluidity that would avoid
the problem of friction in the planetary orbits.
M4'
- The Electron-Positron Sea
A slightly revised version (October 2017) of
the previous paper.
N4 -
Newton's Cradle Disproves Einstein's Theories of Relativity
Abstract.
The counter intuitive behaviour of the Newton's
Cradle is not, as is generally believed, adequately explained
in the literature. In particular, two important issues are
overlooked. One of these is that the elasticity of the balls
arises due to the fact that the balls are made of hard material
that doesn't easily deform during the collisions, when in fact
we might have expected the hard material to have actually reduced
the elasticity. This therefore rules out linear elasticity and
Hooke's law as being the principle action, and so it is proposed that
the energy waves that transfer the kinetic energy through the row
of balls are based on fine-grained rotational elasticity, similar
in nature to that which arises in electromagnetic radiation. The other
overlooked issue is that the kinetic energy waves that move through
the metal balls immediately after a collision, move either to the
right or to the left of the point of impact, or in both directions,
but since energy transfer inside the balls has an absolute motion relative
to the balls themselves, then whether the energy within the balls moves
to the right, or to the left, or in both directions, must depend on
the absolute motion of the balls. The direction of the energy transfer
within the balls cannot depend on an arbitrary choice of rest frame.
It therefore remains to determine the physical basis for absolute motion
and kinetic energy. Only then, in terms of absolute motion, can the Newton's
cradle be correctly analyzed.
O4 - Magnetic
Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
Abstract.
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour
that is exhibited by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement
of an active spin-induced force, similar in nature to the magnetic
force, F = qv×B, and which cannot be predicted
by Newtonian mechanics. The phenomenon of gyroscopic stability exhibits
a strong reactance which cannot be accounted for by the moment of
inertia. The physical connection between the inertial forces and magnetic
repulsion will be investigated.
O4'
- Magnetic Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
New revised version: 10th October 2015
This paper has been amended: "The essence
of the change is that I have now firmly concluded that the inertial
forces arise directly from Newton's laws of motion and not as
supplements. Polar coordinates exposes the inertial forces in
an inertial frame of reference". Here it is the new abstract:
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour
that is exhibited by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement
of an active spin-induced force, similar in nature to the magnetic
force, F = qv×B. The phenomenon of gyroscopic
stability exhibits a strong spin-induced reactance which cannot
be accounted for by the moment of inertia alone. The physical connection
between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will be investigated.
P4 -
Centrifugal Force and the Electron-Positron
Sea
Abstract.
We often hear it said that centrifugal force
is not a real force and that it is only the effects of inertia
that are caused by a body undergoing its uniform straight line
path, as per Newton's first law of motion. These effects of inertia
however are very real and this suggests that the inertial path
itself must have an underlying physical cause. This cause will now
be ascribed to a background elasticity that is rooted in electrostatics.
The electric dipole, with its inverse cube law field, will be
proposed as the primary physical cause of centrifugal force, while
the inertial path and the Mach Principle will be seen to result
from the compound effect of a dense multitude of superimposed dipole
fields filling all of space.
Q4
- Wikipedia and Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that
anybody can edit. The content changes on a continual basis.
One of the rules is that editors must not insert original research.
The contents must reflect what is stated in reliable sources. In
the case of the centrifugal force article however, reliable
sources don’t always agree, and over the years, the inability of editors
at that article to consider the totality of existing knowledge on
the subject has led to never ending discussions and edit wars. An example
of the confusion that surrounds this topic can be found at this web
link,
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/37968/centrifugal-force-and-polar-coordinates
R4 -
Wikipedia and Coriolis Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that
anybody can edit. The content changes on a daily basis. One
of the rules for editing is that editors must not insert original
research. The contents must reflect exactly what is stated in reliable
sources. Reliable sources present Coriolis force as an artefact
of making observations from a rotating frame of reference. When stationary
objects are viewed from a rotating frame of reference, it's true that
the effects are unequivocally fictitious. However, in situations where
an entire system is rotating, the Coriolis force can be very real, and
this fact tends to cause confusion. It will be argued that in the former
case scenarios there is no Coriolis force present at all, real or fictitious,
while in the latter case scenarios the Coriolis force is due to Newton's
laws of motion, and that it already exists independently of the rotating
frame of reference.
S4
- The 1856 Weber-Kohlrausch Experiment (The Speed of Light)
(New revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
Nineteenth century physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Gustav Kirchhoff,
and James Clerk-Maxwell are all credited with connecting electricity
to the speed of light. Weber's breakthrough in 1856, in conjunction with
Rudolf Kohlrausch, revealed the speed of light in the context of a ratio
as between two different units of electric charge. In 1857 Kirchhoff
connected this ratio to the speed of an electric signal travelling along
a wire. Later, in 1862, Maxwell connected this ratio to the elasticity
in the all-pervading luminiferous medium that serves as the carrier of
light waves. This paper sets out to establish the fundamental cause of
the speed of light.
T4
- Compressed Orbits and the Secret Behind E = mc²
Abstract.
On the astronomical scale, the potential energy in
a closed orbit is due to the gravitational force of attraction.
These are uncompressed orbits. The gravitational force is opposed
by a centrifugal force acting internally from within the system.
This article will now consider the nature of the potential energy in
a system of multiple orbits that are pressing against each other with
centrifugal force while striving to dilate. Centrifugal potential energy
is shown to lie at the root of the famous equation E = mc²
.
U4
- Atomic Clocks and Gravitational Field Strength
Abstract.
A redefinition of potential energy better emphasizes
the physical reality of gravitational field strength. The current
definition only deals with motion on the large scale and not with
the fine-grained motions at molecular level which are relevant to
the mechanism of atomic clocks.
V4
- The Inertial Helicopter
Abstract.
A sea level object that is moving horizontally at a speed
greater than 8 km/sec is already in orbit and it will rise upwards
due to centrifugal force. Two such objects tethered together while
moving in opposite directions should therefore spiral upwards like
a helicopter. It will be proposed that the atom is a dipole, and that
it is the fundamental helicopter.
W4
- The Double Helix and the Electron-Positron Aether
(New revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
This article takes a closer look at the bonding and stability
mechanisms within the electron-positron dipole sea and how these result
in the double helix theory of the magnetic field. The physical connection
between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will be further
investigated.
X4
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
Abstract.
This article follows on from previous papers on the double
helix theory of the magnetic field. A closer look will be taken at
the low energy electromagnetic radiation that is confined to a solenoidal
path along the field lines within a near magnetic field, such as occurs
in a transmission line pulse.
X4'
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
A new revised version of the previous paper: 16.I.2021
Abstract.
This paper has now been updated following a realization that, since
flowing aether cannot pass laterally through itself, then wireless EM
radiation can only propagate beyond the near magnetic field when the tiny
vortices that fill all of space are in a state of precession. This would
only occur in the transient state, particularly when the source current
is AC
Y4
- Induction of Electrostatic Repulsion by Strong Gravity
(The Link between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
Abstract.
The radial lines of force that are associated with Gauss's
law indicate the presence of fluid-like sinks and sources in matter,
whether or not we know where these lead to. This article will examine
how two sinks can be either mutually attractive or mutually repulsive depending
on the rate of flow.
Z4
- The Pendulum and the Magnetic Connection
Abstract.
When analyzing pendulum motion, textbooks avoid invoking centrifugal
force. All upward acting forces are accounted for by the tension in
the rod. This tension must however be greater in magnitude than gravity
in order for a net upward force to be possible. The role of centrifugal
force in both the simple pendulum and the conical pendulum will therefore
be re-examined, and a connection with magnetic repulsion will be suggested.
A5
- An Interpretation of Faraday's Lines of Force
Abstract.
The magnetic field is solenoidal, yet the Biot-Savart Law which
is the textbook equation for the magnetic field, indicates the existence
of a singularity owing to the fact that it involves an inverse square
law in distance. This dilemma is solved within the context that an individual
magnetic line of force constitutes a double helix of sinks and sources
closed on itself to form a toroidal ring vortex.
- - - - -
4.X.2019:
With the following 7 last papers, F.D. Tombe concludes his monumental
work aiming to a comparison betewen classical Maxwell electromagnetism
and the (special) theory of relativity introduced by Albert Einstein.
B5 - The Full
Significance of the Speed of Light
Abstract.
In the year 1855, German physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber and
Rudolf Kohlrausch performed a landmark experiment of profound significance.
By discharging a Leyden jar (a capacitor), they linked the speed of light
to the ratio between electrostatic and electrodynamic units of charge.
This experiment was electromagnetism's Rosetta Stone because the result
can be used to, (i) identify the speed of light as the speed of circulation
of electric current, (ii) identify the speed of light as the speed of electromagnetic
waves through a dielectric solid that pervades all of space, while noting
that inertial centrifugal force and dipole fields share in common an
inverse cube law in distance. The result can also be used to, (iii) identify
magnetic repulsion as a centrifugal force, and hence to establish the
double helix pattern that characterizes magnetic lines of force.
C5 - Straight
Line Motion
Abstract.
The straight line inertial path will be examined from the perspective
that it is caused by pressure equilibrium in a sea of tiny aethereal
whirlpools that are pressing against each other with centrifugal force
while striving to dilate. This is opposite to the traditional perspective
whereby centrifugal force is considered to be a consequence of the tendency
of a body to move in uniform straight line motion in the absence of any
Newtonian forces.
D5
- Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Abstract.
It will be shown how the magnetic vector potential, A,
is a momentum which is central to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
and how the convective electromagnetic force E = v×B
is the factor which enables the total time derivative to be used in
Faraday's law.
E5
- The Significance of the Inertial Forces in Electromagnetism
Abstract.
The centrifugal force and the Coriolis force will be described.
There is a controversy over whether these forces are real or fictitious.
This controversy will be examined in conjunction with its significance
to electromagnetism.
F5
- Isotropy in the Electromagnetic Field
Abstract.
In Part III of his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force,
James Clerk Maxwell introduces the concept of displacement current
in connection with the elasticity of the medium for the propagation
of light. During the course of Part III, the luminiferous medium changes
from an anisotropic sea of molecular vortices into an isotropic dielectric
solid. An attempt will be made to reconcile these two seemingly contradictory
mediums.
G5
- Cable Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the waves
that travel alongside the conducting wires in transmission lines relate
to linear polarization. This article will examine how these two phenomena
may or may not be treated using the same basic electromagnetic wave equations.
G5' - Cable
Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 14.II.2020)
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while
the magnetic fields that travel alongside the conducting wires in transmission
lines are commonly associated with capacitance and linear polarization.
This article will examine how these two phenomena may or may not be treated
using the same basic electromagnetic wave equations.
G5'' -
Cable Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 7.I.2021)
"I have been looking again at the differences and similarities
between wireless EM radiation and transmission line pulses, and I finally
came to the conclusion that the Poynting Vector, ExH, does
indeed apply in both cases, but of course with the Faraday E in
the wireless case and the Coulomb E in the cable case. Previously,
I had wrongly argued that it only holds in the wireless case, and I based
that argument on the fact that Poynting's theorem hinges on Faraday's law.
However, it suddenly dawned on me that the Poynting vector itself doesn't
necessarily hinge on Poynting's theorem and that Poynting's theorem merely
only applies to time varying-electromagnetic induction. Transmission line
pulses are however convective phenomena, and just because Poynting's theorem
doesn't apply, doesn't mean that we can't have a Poynting vector telling
us the rate of energy flow in a transmission line pulse".
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the electrostatic
and magnetic fields that travel alongside the conducting wires in transmission
lines are associated with capacitance and linear polarization. This article
will examine how these two phenomena may or may not be treated using the
same electromagnetic wave equations.
H5 - Radiation
Pressure and E = mc2
Abstract.
To show that the equation E = mc2 was already implicit
in Maxwell's 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force and that it
doesn't mean that mass is equivalent to energy, but rather it relates
to the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through an elastic solid.
I5
- Einstein's Big Mistake
From the Introduction:
Einstein overlooked the fact that the speed of light, as it occurs
in the Lorentz transformation equations, is determined by the density
and elasticity of a physical medium which pervades all of space, and which
acts as the medium for the propagation of light waves. This fact had already
been established by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, (1831-1879),
who happened to die in the same year that Einstein was born. The physical
medium in question was known to Maxwell as the luminiferous medium
although Einstein later referred to it as a Lichtäthers (luminiferous
aether). Maxwell provided us with a reasonably clear picture of what the
physical structure of this medium would need to be. He proposed that all
of space is filled with a sea of molecular vortices comprised of tiny aethereal
whirlpools, each surrounded by electric particles. This was an idea, which
according to Tesla in 1907, had in essence, long been known to men of old.
14.V.2021: A new paper, "in
response to issues arising on a discussion thread".
J5
- Aether Friction in the Planetary Orbits
Abstract.
When a theory of electromagnetism promotes the idea that the medium
for the propagation of light waves is an elastic solid comprised of electric
particles, the question is always going to be asked as to why this medium
would not generate friction in the planetary orbits, such as would cause
the planets to spiral into the Sun. It would be impossible for a moving body
to completely avoid any physical interaction with these electric particles,
and so, in order to comply with Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, this interaction
must be the actual cause of the inertial forces, as opposed to being the
cause of any dissipative friction.
J5'
- Aether Friction in the Planetary Orbits
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 21.IX.2021)
"I have made some amendments to this article. The essence of the changes
is mainly to emphasize the fact that entrainment of the luminiferous medium
by gravity is necessary in order for centrifugal force to be an actual physical
repulsion. This was implied in the original version, but now it is emphasized".
21.IX.2021: "Despite having intended in 2019 to stop
writing physics articles, I continued to be involved in discussion threads.
Answering questions caused me to come up with new ideas as well as better
ways to express my older ideas. As such I ended up writing more articles.
It is still nevertheless my intention to move on to other interests in the
near future".
K5
- Centrifugal Force in the Schwarzschild Field
"An attempt to reconcile General Relativity with aether theory.
The presence of the aether as an absolute standard of rest, removes the
paradoxes from STR".
Abstract.
Centrifugal force is an inertial effect which is induced by motion through
the Minkowski 4D space-time continuum. While it can act in opposition to
gravity, there is evidence from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity,
that gravity, if strong enough, can affect the physical structure of the 4D
space-time continuum in such a way as to destroy the centrifugal force and
convert it into an electrostatic force of attraction that augments the gravity.
The physical nature of centrifugal force and the manner in which it can be
altered by gravity will now be investigated.
L5
- The Physical Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
"I wrote the attached paper in order to show readers Maxwell's derivation
of the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1873 Treatise. The paper works
through the derivation with a link supplied to the 1873 paper, and my summary
uses modern vector notation and SI units".
Abstract.
Since Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell wrote his Treatise in 1873,
it has generally been believed that wireless electromagnetic radiation
consists of sinusoidally oscillating electric and magnetic fields, perpendicular
to each other and mutually perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The reasons as to why Maxwell concluded these mutually perpendicular orientations
will now be investigated, as will the issue of the relative phase in time
as between these electric and magnetic disturbances.
M5 - The
Apparent Dual Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
Abstract.
The Planck-Einstein relation, E = hf, relates the energy of discrete pulses
of black body radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays to their wave frequency.
This relationship appears to contradict the wave theory of light. An investigation
will now take place regarding whether the Planck-Einstein relation, and Planck's
constant itself, lie in the domain of the medium for the propagation of light,
or in the vestibule of the atom, or in both.
N5
- The Positronium Orbit in the Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
The purpose is to show that the equation E = mc2 was already
implicit in Maxwell's 1861 paper "On Physical Lines of Force" and that it
doesn't mean that mass is equivalent to energy, but rather it relates to
the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through a sea of rotating electron-positron
dipoles which pervades all of space.
___________________________________________________________________________