FORUM DI EPISTEME
Maxwell's sea of molecular
vortices 1861,
the inspiration
for "The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field"
_____________________________________________________________
4 - Frederick
David Tombe
sirius184@hotmail.com
- - - - -
The following 1st July 2010 revision of "The Double Helix
Theory of the Magnetic Field" summarizes all the most important
issues that have been covered in the various revisions since the original
paper of 15th February 2006.
Abstract.
In 1856,
Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed
an experiment with a Leyden Jar which showed that the
ratio of the quantity of electricity when measured statically,
to the same quantity of electricity when measured electrodynamically,
is numerically equal to the directly measured speed of
light. In 1861, in his paper entitled ‘On Physical Lines of
Force’, James Clerk-Maxwell equated the above ratio with the
ratio of the dielectric constant to the magnetic permeability.
In the same paper, Maxwell modeled Faraday’s magnetic lines of
force using a sea of molecular vortices that were composed
partly of aether and partly of ordinary matter. He linked the
dielectric constant to the transverse elasticity of this vortex
sea, and he linked the magnetic permeability to the density. Since
Newton’s equation for the speed of sound involves the ratio
of the transverse elasticity to the density, Maxwell was able
to use Weber’s constant to show that light is a wave in the same
medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. It
will now be suggested that Maxwell’s molecular vortices are more
accurately represented with rotating electron-positron dipoles that
are aligned in a double helix fashion with their mutual rotation axes
tracing out the magnetic lines of force.
May 2016 - A new version of the
previous paper:
Abstract.
The historical linkage between optics and electromagnetism
can be traced back to a paper published in the year 1856 by Wilhelm
Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. By discharging a Leyden Jar (a capacitor),
they showed that the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units
of charge is numerically equal to the directly measured speed of light.
Weber interpreted this result as meaning that the speed of light is a
kind of escape velocity for electricity in motion, such as would enable
the associated magnetic force to overcome the electrostatic force. An alternative
interpretation was advanced a few years later by James Clerk-Maxwell
who connected the result to the elasticity in an all pervading solid
medium that serves as the carrier of light waves. As a consequence, he
concluded that light waves are electromagnetic undulations. These two
perspectives can be reconciled by linking the speed of light to the circumferential
speed of the molecular vortices which Maxwell believed to be the constituent
particles of the solid luminiferous medium. If we consider these molecular
vortices to be tiny electric current circulations, magnetic repulsion
can then be explained in terms of centrifugal force. And if these molecular
vortices should take the form of an electron and a positron in mutual orbit,
we can then also explain magnetic attraction in terms of the more fundamental
electrostatic force being channeled through space along double helix chains
that constitute magnetic lines of force.
* * * * *
B - Gravitation,
Electrostatics, and the Electron-Positron
Aether (Ether)
(Based on the 1982 paper
by David Tombe, entitled "Electrogravitomagnetism")
[22nd August 2008 - This paper has been totally withdrawn, for the reason that it centres around a theory
which attempts to rationalize inertial mass as being related
to the sum of the "modulus" of the electric charge in a body.
More recently, I have been working on a different principle as
explained in the paper at N2 entitled "Negative Mass and the
Gravity Sink". The ideas contained in this paper concerning
inertial mass were only peripheral to the main theme regarding an
electron-positron luminiferous medium. These ideas concerning inertial
mass have now been superseded by a new theory which involves absolute
values as opposed to 'modulus' values of charge
.
(We maintain nevertheless a copy of the
paper for history's sake.)
3rd November 2011
- A comment from the author. There is really no important
need to withdraw this paper. I am once again of the opinion,
as was stated in the paper, that mass is a cumulative quantity
based on all the particles in a body. I can add that it is widely
believed, due to a common error in the secondary literature, that
Maxwell conceived of displacement current in connection with the
electric capacitor circuit. In actual fact, Maxwell's original paper
of 1861, part III, indicates that he did not conceive of displacement
current in connection with the electric capacitor circuit. This paper,
based on research done in 1982, perpetrates that common error,
and the author has corrected it in future articles. The author also
now notes that the displacement current term as is used in the derivation
of the electromagnetic wave equation, should be magnetization based,
and not linear polarization based. In other words, it should be a
rotatory effect and not a linear effect.]
23rd January
2011 - This paper has been fully revised, here is in
red a comment from the author (we maintain previous comments
again for history's sake).
- This article was written in 2003 based
on original material from 1982, without any revision of the
core ideas. Research was commenced again in 2004. As a result
of seven further years of investigation, comments have
now been added in red by the author, in order to draw attention
to the revised views in the light of the more recent research.
The first issue concerns the title itself. The electron-positron
sea is not the aether as such. Positrons are aether sources and electrons
are aether sinks. The electrons and positrons are paired in mutual
orbits to form rotating dipoles, and as such the electron-positron
medium for the propagation of light is actually a sea of tiny dipolar
aether whirlpools.
E - Gravity Reversal
and Atomic Bonding
(A Theory
of Mutually Attracting Sinks)
[Note
of the Editor: As far as the following
assertion is concerne
d: «
the
Earth's magnetic field is explained
by virtue of the fact that the Earth
is a rotating negatively charged object»
, the reader
could be interested even in the paper presented
in next point 8.]
(The Epicycle
Theory of the Atom)
(New revised version:
5th August 2008)
I - Charge, Spin,
and 'Charge to Mass' Ratio
(A Unified Theory
of Gravity and Electricity)
22nd
August 2008: This paper has been
totally withdrawn
(together with paper B)
, for the reason that it centres
around a theory which attempts to
rationalize inertial mass as being related
to the sum of the "modulus" of the electric
charge in a body. More recently, I have been
working on a different principle as explained in
the paper at N2 entitled "Negative Mass and the Gravity
Sink".
The ideas
contained in this paper concerning inertial
mass were only peripheral to the main theme
regarding an electron-positron luminiferous
medium. These ideas concerning inertial
mass have now been superseded by a new theory which
involves absolute values as opposed to 'modulus'
values of charge, and the theories
concerning centrifugal force and Coriolis force
contained within this paper have been expanded upon
in the paper at Q2 entitled "The Cause of Centrifugal
Force"
.
(We
maintain nevertheless a copy of the paper
for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 5th August 2008)
L -
The Aether
and the Electric Sea
(The Link between
Gravity and Electromagnetism)
(New revised version:
18th February 2009)
(New revised version:
5th March 2009)
New revised version:
18th March 2009
( "The amendment changed
a paragraph in the section about inertia")
(New revised version
of L: 2nd June 2009
"Another section
mentioning inertia was removed". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous paper for history's
sake.)
(New revised version
of U': 2nd June 2009
"This was a major
amendment based on the realization that the
Coriolis force is a real transverse force that arises in
connection with the conservation of angular momentum".
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
Y - The Four Kinds of Electric
Charge
(A vitreous electricity
explanation for infinite supplies of
electric charge)
(New revised
version: 24th September 2008)
(New revised version:
14th December 2008)
(New revised version:
2nd June 2009
"A general re-wording
without any major change in the content".)
A2' - Bernoulli's
Principle and the Theory of Flight
(New revised version of A2: 2nd June
2009
"This was a major
re-write with an increased emphasis on the
role of the centrifugal force in the air molecules".
We maintain nevertheless a copy of the previous
paper for history's sake.)
(New revised version: 18th May 2008)
(New revised version:
18th February 2009)
H2 - Bernoulli's Principle
and the AC Transformer
(New revised version:
18th May 2008)
October 2016
- A new version of the previous paper (this new version disregards
matters to do with capacitance as they are a red herring to the main
issue: that charge is something that must flow net into
the circuit from the power source; the idea is that charge is the pressure
in an electric fluid and that Bernoulli's principle in conjunction with
conservation of power is the governing feature in a transformer circuit;
the older version side-tracks too much to the subject of capacitance,
and it doesn't sufficiently emphasize the fact that charge must enter
net as like pressurized water into the water supply network):
Abstract.
The AC transformer is a transducer which converts
between potential energy and kinetic energy. A step-up transformer increases
the voltage and decreases the current while a step-down transformer does
the opposite. Despite the low current, streaks of lightning arc out
from high voltage cross country power cables when earthed objects get
too close. The physical nature of voltage will now be examined.
N2 - Negative Mass and
the Gravity Sink
O2 - The General Convective Force
(A General Survey
of the Coriolis force and the Centrifugal force)
(New revised version:
9th June 2008)
(New revised
version: 19th August 2008
)
P2 -
Centrifugal
Force in the Electric Circuit
(New revised
version: 28th December 2008:
"The focus
was in amending the section on EM induction
in relation to Coriolis Force", see T2 and T2')
(New revised version:
29th January 2009)
New revised
version: 18th March 2009 ("The
wording in the centrifugal force section was
improved to emphasize the extrapolation of
the general principle of centrifugal force to the
four body problem in which two closed orbital systems
sit side by side, and therefore must repel each other
")
P2' -
Centrifugal Force in the Electric Circuit
(New revised version
of P2: 2nd June 2009
"This revision goes into much more detail
on the role of the Coriolis force in the induction
of current in a wire that is moving through a magnetic
field". We maintain nevertheless a copy of the
previous paper for history's sake.)
(New revised
version: 19th August 2008 )
(New revised version:
7th December 2008 )
(New revised version:
5th March 2009)
Q2' - The Cause of Centrifugal Force
(New revised version of Q2: 2nd June
2009
"This was a major
re-write based on the realization that the
inverse cube law points to a dipole field". We maintain
nevertheless a copy of the previous paper for
history's sake.)
(New revised
version: 28th August 2008 )
(New revised version:
14th December 2008)
S2 - The Coriolis Force and the Screw
*
30.XI.2011: This paper has now been withdrawn, but you
can still read it with an author's remark.
T2 -
Areal Velocity, Coriolis
Force, and Vorticity
T2' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New revised version
of T2: 28th December 2008)
"T2' is a major amendment.
I've taken all the contents into what is
effectively a new paper". We maintain nevertheless a copy
of the previous paper for history's sake.
( New revised version:
5th March 2009)
T2'' -
The Cause of Coriolis Force
(New revised version
of T2': 2nd June 2009)
"This was
a major re-write based on a clearer division
between transverse Coriolis force and axial Coriolis force"
. We maintain nevertheless
a copy of the previous paper for history's
sake.
U2 -
Displacement Current
(New revised version:
14th December 2008)
V2 - Displacement
Current 2
(New revised version:
18th February 2009)
Y2 - Wave/Particle Duality in Electromagnetic
Radiation
Z2 -
Wave/Particle Duality in
Cathode Rays
A3 -
Cathode Rays, Gravity, and Electromagnetic
Radiation
(New revised version:
14th December 2008)
B3 -
Tangential Force – The Equilibrium
Shifter
(New revised version:
29th January 2009)
New revised version:
18th March 2009 (" Appendix
B was removed as it was a bit hard to read, and out
of context, and it will be the subject of
a separate paper some time in the future
")
B3' -
Lenz's Law
(New revised
version of B3: 5th November 2009
This
is a major re-write of the previous paper, we maintain
nevertheless a copy of the older one for history's sake.)
C3 - The Key
that Winds up the Universe
New revised version:
18th March 2009 (" Large,
somewhat confusing sections on 'inertia' were removed.
A new paper on inertia will be written some
time in the future")
D3
-
Electromagnetism
and the Rolling Wheel
E3 - The Superimposition of Radiation
and Gravity
New revised version:
5th March 2009
F3 - The Rotationally Elastic Sponge
G3 - Kepler's Law of Areal Velocity in
Cyclones
H3 -
Inertia
and the Electric Sea
I3 -
The Coriolis
Force is a System of Accountancy for Real Forces
J3 -
The Physical Nature of the
Coriolis Force
Un nuovo lavoro, febbraio
2010 - A new paper, February 2010:
K3 - Maxwell's Sea of
Molecular Vortices
L3 -
Magnetic Repulsion and Centrifugal Force
(April 2010)
M3 - The Electric Rings of Force that cause the
Tides
(September 2010)
N3 - The Coriolis Force and the Aether
(The Compound Centrifugal Force)
(December
2010)
Abstract.
The Coriolis force
is induced by a compound motion involving two independent
yet physically connected motions, one of which is linear
and the other which must be of a rotatory nature. In a paper
which he wrote in 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis
referred to it as the "compound centrifugal force ". Just
like centrifugal force, it acts to deflect an element perpendicularly
to its path of motion, but its mathematical expression is exactly
twice that of the simple centrifugal force. It is commonly
associated with atmospheric cyclones, but it can also be observed
deflecting the effect of gravity on a comet, reversing a rotating
rattleback (Celtic stone), preventing a pivoted spinning gyroscope
from toppling under the force of gravity, and driving an electric
current in a wire that is moving perpendicularly to a magnetic field.
The origins of the Coriolis force will now be traced to differential
centrifugal pressure and differential vorticity in the dense background
sea of tiny aether vortices which serves as the medium for the propagation
of light.
Abstract.
The rattleback
(Celtic Stone) is the most mysterious phenomenon in
classical mechanics. It reverses its angular momentum by inducing
a Coriolis pressure from the dense background sea of rotating
electron-positron dipoles which is the medium for the propagation
of light.
P3 - The Centrifugal Force Paradox
(April 2011)
Abstract.
It is commonly
taught nowadays that centrifugal force doesn't exist,
except as a fictitious force that is only observable from
a rotating frame of reference. This belief is based on Newton's
law of inertia which states that a body undergoing straight
line motion at constant speed experiences no net force,
and that curved path motion involves only a centripetal force.
However, if we split the net zero force of straight line constant
speed motion into polar components, we find that one of these
is a centrifugal force component which can physically react with
constraints, hence revealing an underlying pressure associated with
inertia. Further evidence that centrifugal force is a real physical
force arises when inertial pressure becomes asymmetrical, as happens
in a radial gravitational field or in a solenoidal magnetic field.
Q3 - Physical Lines of Force in the Aether
(April 2011)
Abstract.
In the nineteenth
century, James Clerk-Maxwell was unable to explain
the linkage between gravity and electromagnetism. He realized
that gravitational lines of force must involve a pressure,
as is the case with magnetic lines of force when they are involved
in mutual repulsion. He also realized that the pressure
in the magnetic lines of force acts laterally due to centrifugal
force in a sea of molecular vortices, but he couldn't seem
to similarly explain the pressure in the gravitational lines of
force [1]. It will now be suggested that gravitational lines of
force are actually lines of tension, and that Maxwell's molecular
vortices are dielectric in nature. The linear polarization of these
dipolar vortices, caused by the gravitational field, will increase
the centrifugal pressure which is exerted laterally, and this pressure
will result in a repulsive force in competition with the attractive
force. The attractive force, being a monopole field, will obey the
inverse square law, whereas the repulsive force, being a dipole field,
will obey the inverse cube law. Hence if the charge of an object increases,
the inverse cube law relationship for the surrounding repulsive force
field will lead to a reversal threshold, where it will dominate over
the attractive force. The charge can increase electrostatically
or because of inertia. In the latter case, the repulsive force field
is the large scale centrifugal force.
R3 - Anti-Gravity and the Flying Saucer
(May 2011)
(New amended version: 21.XI.2011)
Abstract.
There is only
one anti-gravity force, and that is positive electric
charge. Positive charge is the centrifugally directed pressurized
aether which emerges from the sources which we understand
as positively charged particles. A particular geometrical
arrangement of the positive particles of the luminiferous medium
is sought, such that it will push a flying saucer upwards against
the gravitational field.
S3 - Centrifugal Force Denial
(June 2011)
Abstract.
When a mooring
line needs to be cast from ship to shore over a lengthy
distance, this can be accomplished by utilizing the concept
of centrifugal potential energy. Swinging the weight in circular
motion in a vertical plane, and building it up to a high angular
speed is a means of storing up pressure. The weight can then be
released underarm, resulting in a projectile with kinetic energy
corresponding to the stored centrifugal potential energy. We can
of course choose to deny the existence of this centrifugal pressure
and explain the phenomenon on the grounds that we are merely witnessing
the tendency of an object to move in a straight line in the absence
of an applied force. But we can only indulge in this denial in
the absence of a radial or a solenoidal field, and such fields exist
everywhere. It will now be shown how centrifugal force corresponds
to positive electric charge, kinetic energy, and inertia, and
how a magnetic field is a particular manifestation of inertia.
T3 - Bernoulli's Theorem and the Principle of Flight
Abstract.
When an aeroplane
moves horizontally through the air, the air pressure
below the wings is greater than the air pressure above the
wings. This causes a force to act vertically upwards on the aeroplane,
at right angles to its direction of motion. Likewise when an electric
current flows through a wire in a magnetic field, a differential
pressure is exerted on either side of the wire, causing a force to
act at right angles to the wire. In the former case the pressure arises
from the centrifugal force that is being exerted by the air molecules,
whereas in the latter case the pressure arises from the centrifugal
force that is being exerted by the tiny molecular vortices that form
the medium for the propagation of light.
U3 - Centrifugal Force
From F.D. Tombe: I decided to
do a paper dedicated exclusively to 'centrifugal force'.
Other papers that I have written incorporate my views on centrifugal
force, but this paper is designed to directly counter the official
mainstream point of view on centrifugal force.
Abstract.
It is nowadays taught
that centrifugal force is a fictitious force
that can only be observed from a rotating frame of reference.
This teaching is based on the argument that when no inward
centripetal force is acting, a particle will proceed
in its straight line inertial path. In situations where the physical
effects of centrifugal force are detected, this is dismissed
as being merely the effects of inertia. Polar coordinates relative
to a point origin expose a centrifugal force acting on a particle
that is moving in a straight line, but this centrifugal force tends
to be masked from view by virtue of the fact that the radial position
vector is rotating. This article will examine ways to expose the
physical reality of the centrifugal force.
V3 - Double Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
This article examines
a situation in which two completely separate centrifugal
forces are acting within a single rotating system. One centrifugal
force relates to the rotation axis of the rotating system,
while the other centrifugal force relates to the centre of the
Earth and the horizontal transverse speeds within the rotating
system. The latter has the power to cause an object to rise vertically
in defiance of gravity.
Z3 - The Coriolis Force (The Compound Centrifugal
Force)
Abstract.
The Coriolis force is
generally associated with the Earth's rotation, although
it can arise in connection with any kind of rotation. In a
paper which he wrote in 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis referred to it as the "compound centrifugal force", and
that is exactly what it is. It is a compound inertial force which
results when a compound motion causes two opposing centrifugal pressures
to press differentially on either side of an object. When an
object moves through the medium for the propagation of light, this
induces an inertial pressure around the object which is manifested
as kinetic energy. When this inertial pressure is asymmetrical, such
as is the case in a radial or in a solenoidal field, the asymmetry
is manifested as an inertial force. In meteorology, the asymmetry which
leads to the Coriolis force being induced in cyclones is complicated
by the fact that there are two centres of rotation involved, and hence
we are dealing with a double Coriolis force. With the double Coriolis
force in meteorology, there is the rotation that is centred on the Earth,
and there is also the rotation that is centred on the cyclone itself.
A4 - Maxwell's Original Equations
From the Introduction:
Although Maxwell's most important equations
had already appeared throughout his seminal paper entitled
"On Physical Lines of Force", which was written in 1861 in
Great Britain, it was not until 1864 that Maxwell created a distinct
listing of eight equations in a section entitled "General Equations
of the Electromagnetic Field" in his follow up paper entitled
"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". While Maxwell
refers to twenty equations at the end of this section, there are
in fact only eight equations as such. Maxwell arrives at the figure
of twenty because he splits six of these equations into their three
Cartesian components. Maxwell's eight original equations will be
discussed in depth in individual sections throughout this paper.
B4 - Electric Current (Cable Telegraphy and Wireless Telegraphy)
Abstract.
Poynting's theorem applies
to wireless telegraphy as well as to electric circuits and cable
telegraphy. We will therefore seek to establish the commonality
between these three phenomena.
C4 - Newton's Cradle and the Transmission Line
Abstract.
Two electric currents flowing
in opposite directions along the same wire in a transmission
line appear to pass right through each other. We therefore require
a theory of electric current that can account for this, while at
the same time maintaining consistency with Ampère's circuital law.
D4 -
The Distortion of Maxwell's Equations
Abstract.
James Clerk-Maxwell is credited
with having brought electricity, magnetism, and optical phenomena,
together into one unified theory. The details of what exactly
he did were however seriously distorted in twentieth century physics
textbooks. Maxwell is most famous in connection with a set of equations
which bear his name, but these equations have been totally removed
from the physical context within which Maxwell was working, and outside
of that physical context the full meaning of these equations is lost.
Maxwell was working within the context of a sea of tiny aethereal vortices
pressing against each other with centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
bit was crucial for explaining magnetic repulsion, yet both centrifugal
force and aether are stringently denied by modern physicists who nevertheless
continue to hail Maxwell for the equations that he derived by using
these very concepts which they deny. This irony seems to be explained
at least in part because they think that the equations can be re-derived
using Einstein's special theory of relativity. Such an erroneous belief
stems from the fact that one of the most important of Maxwell's equations
has been wrongly credited to Lorentz and referred to as the Lorentz force
law and treated as ‘supplementary’ to Maxwell's equations. Einstein, being
ignorant of Maxwell's original equations and the fact that they contained
the Lorentz force law, hence wrongly believed that the equations contained
no convective term, and so he made the erroneous conclusion that Maxwell's
equations mean that the speed of light must be frame independent in contradiction
of classical principles of vector addition of velocities. This erroneous
conclusion led Einstein to his special theory of relativity in 1905, and
it subsequently led to the erroneous belief amongst both relativists and
many anti-relativists, that Einstein's special theory of relativity follows
naturally from Maxwell's theory, when in fact Maxwell and Einstein were
not even remotely working along the same lines.
E4
-
The Two Kinds of Electric Charge
Abstract.
In an earlier article, it was
explained how there are four kinds of electric charge. There
are in fact only two kinds of electric charge. The earlier article
created four kinds of charge by identifying both a simple and a compound
version for each of positive and negative charge. Simple charge was
based on the tension and pressure associated with pure aether flow,
in and out of negative and positive particles, while compound charge
was about the intermediary effect of the electron-positron dipoles
that fill the space between charged bodies. A charged body linearly
polarizes the surrounding electron-positron sea and this causes a
centrifugal repulsive force to act laterally from the field lines.
It will be explained how two negative charges may either attract or
repel depending on the strength of the charge, and hence explaining
the link between gravity and electrostatics.
F4 - Electric Current and Dielectrics
Abstract.
A dielectric medium impedes electric current
due to the fact that the constituent dipoles become linearly
polarized and induce a back EMF. A capacitor in an electric circuit
utilizes the principle that a dielectric gap in the conducting material
causes impedance and acts like a dam, hence enabling electricity
to be stored in the circuit. This same dielectric effect can also
be used in transmission lines. We will now examine the discharging
process in a capacitor with reference to a transmission line pulse,
while taking care not to ignore Ampère's Circuital Law. A general
principle will be proposed in which an electric circulation commences
at the contact point of discharge, and that this circulation expands
in two opposite directions, eating its way backwards into the original
charged zone while simultaneously extending forwards beyond it, such as
to create a region that is twice as long as the original zone, but exhibiting
a lesser degree of linear polarization.
G4 - The Centrifugal Force and the Coriolis Force
Abstract.
In 1835, French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de
Coriolis wrote a paper in which he mathematically derived equations
of motion for rotating coordinate systems [1]. In this paper he
drew attention to two categories of supplementary forces. Coriolis
referred to these forces in the plural. The forces in the first category
were the ordinary centrifugal forces, while the forces in the second
category were described as being equal to twice the product of the angular
velocity of the mobile plane, taken with respect to the relative momentum
as projected unto that plane. By analogy with the mathematical formula
for the ordinary centrifugal forces, Coriolis called this second category
of supplementary forces "The compound centrifugal forces". This
paper aims to establish the fundamental physical cause behind centrifugal
force as well as its connection with the medium for the propagation
of light.
[1] Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, «Sur
les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps»,
J. de L'Ecole Royale Polytechnique, 24th cahier, p. 142, 1835.
H4 - The Centrifugal Force Argument
Abstract.
The modern teaching is that centrifugal force
only exists in a rotating frame of reference and that the only
force that acts in an inertial frame of reference when a body undergoes
circular motion is an inward acting centripetal force. On the contrary
however it is here proposed that a rotating frame of reference, rather
than creating an inertial centrifugal force, actually masks a hithertofore
unrecognized inertial centripetal force. When the books are correctly
balanced, it will be demonstrated that centrifugal force is a real
force, closely related to kinetic energy, and observable in any frame
of reference.
I4 - The Speed of Light
Abstract.
The aether (or electricity) is a
fluid-like substance that is the stuff of all matter and space,
and it flows constantly between positive and negative particles,
with particles being merely aether sources and aether sinks. Space
is densely packed with aether sinks (electrons) and aether sources
(positrons). These electrons and positrons are paired into tiny dipoles.
Within each dipole, the electron and the positron will undergo a
mutual circular orbit. In the steady state, these tiny dipolar aether
vortices will align with their neighbours according to two superimposed
principles. Their rotation axes will mutually align and trace out
solenoidal lines around a magnetic dipole. The resulting electron-positron
double helix that winds its way around each such line is what causes
the electrostatic tension that makes it into a 'magnetic line of force'.
When large scale aether flow, constituting either an externally applied
gravitational field or an electric current (electric field), is superimposed,
the tiny vortices will become linearly polarized. This will result in
a 'couple force' acting on the tiny vortices which will cause them to
precess such that their precessional axes will be aligned with the externally
applied field lines. Centrifugal pressure therefore acts at right angles
to both magnetic and electric lines of force. In the dynamic state the
alignment of the dipoles is undergoing change and the tiny dipoles
will be angularly accelerating, either in magnitude or direction (precession).
This realignment will be accompanied by a net vortex flow of pressurized
aether that passes between neighbouring dipoles. This net flow of momentum
is electromagnetic radiation and it has a wave-like nature, in that the
flow will constantly be emerging from positrons and sinking into electrons.
The average speed of this flow is what determines the speed of light.
L4
- Galilean Invariance and Mach's Principle
Abstract.
Galileo's «Principle of Relativity»
omits any consideration of an absolute frame of reference with
respect to which motion is measured. Kinetic energy would appear
to be a relative quantity whose magnitude depends on the chosen frame
of reference, or in the case of its centrifugal force derivative, depends
on which polar origin is chosen. The magnitude of any physical interaction
involving two bodies is only ever dependent on their relative velocity,
and there seems to be no way of exposing the existence of any special frame
of reference with respect to which linear kinetic energy is an absolute
physical quantity. The fact of centrifugal force however does indicate
that such a frame of reference must exist, and that this frame appears
to be embedded in a medium that is in a state of zero rotation relative
to the fixed background stars. Rotation relative to the fixed background
stars induces centrifugal force, which suggests that kinetic energy
is indeed an absolute physical quantity that is induced by the interaction
of a moving body with a physical medium which pervades all of space.
In this article it will be proposed that the physical medium for the
propagation of light is also the cause of kinetic energy and centrifugal
force, and we will be reminded that Maxwell's equations are formulated
specifically with this medium as the standard of rest. Important questions
relating to the motion of this luminiferous medium relative
to the planets and the stars will then be discussed.
M4
- The Electron-Positron Sea
Abstract.
It is proposed that all space is permeated with a
dense electrically neutral sea of electrons and positrons which
serves as the medium for the propagation of light. The challenge remains
to devise a stable bonding mechanism within this luminiferous medium
that conforms with Maxwell's equations by providing the necessary solidity
and the physical mechanism that will give rise to the characteristics
of electromagnetic waves, while at the same time allowing for the
fluidity that would avoid the problem of friction in the planetary
orbits.
M4'
- The Electron-Positron Sea
A slightly revised version (October 2017) of the previous
paper.
N4 -
Newton's Cradle Disproves Einstein's Theories of Relativity
Abstract.
The counter intuitive behaviour of the Newton's Cradle
is not, as is generally believed, adequately explained in the literature.
In particular, two important issues are overlooked. One of these
is that the elasticity of the balls arises due to the fact that the
balls are made of hard material that doesn't easily deform during the
collisions, when in fact we might have expected the hard material to
have actually reduced the elasticity. This therefore rules out linear
elasticity and Hooke's law as being the principle action, and so it is
proposed that the energy waves that transfer the kinetic energy through
the row of balls are based on fine-grained rotational elasticity, similar
in nature to that which arises in electromagnetic radiation. The other
overlooked issue is that the kinetic energy waves that move through the
metal balls immediately after a collision, move either to the right or
to the left of the point of impact, or in both directions, but since energy
transfer inside the balls has an absolute motion relative to the balls
themselves, then whether the energy within the balls moves to the right,
or to the left, or in both directions, must depend on the absolute motion
of the balls. The direction of the energy transfer within the balls cannot
depend on an arbitrary choice of rest frame. It therefore remains to determine
the physical basis for absolute motion and kinetic energy. Only then,
in terms of absolute motion, can the Newton's cradle be correctly analyzed.
O4 - Magnetic
Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
Abstract.
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour that is
exhibited by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement of an
active spin-induced force, similar in nature to the magnetic force,
F = qv×B, and which cannot be predicted by Newtonian
mechanics. The phenomenon of gyroscopic stability exhibits a strong
reactance which cannot be accounted for by the moment of inertia. The
physical connection between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion
will be investigated.
O4'
- Magnetic Repulsion and the Gyroscopic Force
New revised version: 10th October 2015
This paper has been amended: "The essence of the change
is that I have now firmly concluded that the inertial forces arise
directly from Newton's laws of motion and not as supplements. Polar
coordinates exposes the inertial forces in an inertial frame of reference".
Here it is the new abstract:
The counterintuitive gravity defying behaviour that is exhibited
by a pivoted gyroscope suggests the involvement of an active spin-induced
force, similar in nature to the magnetic force, F = qv×B.
The phenomenon of gyroscopic stability exhibits a strong spin-induced
reactance which cannot be accounted for by the moment of inertia alone.
The physical connection between the inertial forces and magnetic repulsion
will be investigated.
P4 -
Centrifugal Force and the Electron-Positron
Sea
Abstract.
We often hear it said that centrifugal force is not a
real force and that it is only the effects of inertia that are caused
by a body undergoing its uniform straight line path, as per Newton's
first law of motion. These effects of inertia however are very real
and this suggests that the inertial path itself must have an underlying
physical cause. This cause will now be ascribed to a background elasticity
that is rooted in electrostatics. The electric dipole, with its inverse
cube law field, will be proposed as the primary physical cause of centrifugal
force, while the inertial path and the Mach Principle will be seen
to result from the compound effect of a dense multitude of superimposed
dipole fields filling all of space.
Q4
- Wikipedia and Centrifugal Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that anybody can
edit. The content changes on a continual basis. One of the rules is
that editors must not insert original research. The contents must reflect
what is stated in reliable sources. In the case of the centrifugal
force article however, reliable sources don’t always agree, and over
the years, the inability of editors at that article to consider the totality
of existing knowledge on the subject has led to never ending discussions
and edit wars. An example of the confusion that surrounds this topic
can be found at this web link,
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/37968/centrifugal-force-and-polar-coordinates
R4 -
Wikipedia and Coriolis Force
Abstract.
Wikipedia is the on-line encyclopaedia that anybody can
edit. The content changes on a daily basis. One of the rules for editing
is that editors must not insert original research. The contents must
reflect exactly what is stated in reliable sources. Reliable sources
present Coriolis force as an artefact of making observations from
a rotating frame of reference. When stationary objects are viewed from
a rotating frame of reference, it's true that the effects are unequivocally
fictitious. However, in situations where an entire system is rotating, the
Coriolis force can be very real, and this fact tends to cause confusion.
It will be argued that in the former case scenarios there is no Coriolis
force present at all, real or fictitious, while in the latter case scenarios
the Coriolis force is due to Newton's laws of motion, and that it already
exists independently of the rotating frame of reference.
S4
- The 1856 Weber-Kohlrausch Experiment (The Speed of Light)
(New revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
Nineteenth century physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Gustav Kirchhoff, and
James Clerk-Maxwell are all credited with connecting electricity to the
speed of light. Weber's breakthrough in 1856, in conjunction with Rudolf
Kohlrausch, revealed the speed of light in the context of a ratio as between
two different units of electric charge. In 1857 Kirchhoff connected this
ratio to the speed of an electric signal travelling along a wire. Later,
in 1862, Maxwell connected this ratio to the elasticity in the all-pervading
luminiferous medium that serves as the carrier of light waves. This paper
sets out to establish the fundamental cause of the speed of light.
T4
- Compressed Orbits and the Secret Behind E = mc²
Abstract.
On the astronomical scale, the potential energy in a closed orbit
is due to the gravitational force of attraction. These are uncompressed
orbits. The gravitational force is opposed by a centrifugal force acting
internally from within the system. This article will now consider the
nature of the potential energy in a system of multiple orbits that are
pressing against each other with centrifugal force while striving to dilate.
Centrifugal potential energy is shown to lie at the root of the famous
equation E = mc² .
U4
- Atomic Clocks and Gravitational Field Strength
Abstract.
A redefinition of potential energy better emphasizes the physical
reality of gravitational field strength. The current definition only
deals with motion on the large scale and not with the fine-grained motions
at molecular level which are relevant to the mechanism of atomic clocks.
V4
- The Inertial Helicopter
Abstract.
A sea level object that is moving horizontally at a speed greater
than 8 km/sec is already in orbit and it will rise upwards due to centrifugal
force. Two such objects tethered together while moving in opposite directions
should therefore spiral upwards like a helicopter. It will be proposed
that the atom is a dipole, and that it is the fundamental helicopter.
W4
- The Double Helix and the Electron-Positron Aether
(New
revised version: 18.IV.2011)
Abstract.
This article takes a closer look at the bonding and stability mechanisms
within the electron-positron dipole sea and how these result in the double
helix theory of the magnetic field. The physical connection between the
inertial forces and magnetic repulsion will be further investigated.
X4
- Electromagnetic Radiation in the Near Magnetic Field
Abstract.
This article follows on from previous papers on the double helix theory
of the magnetic field. A closer look will be taken at the low energy electromagnetic
radiation that is confined to a solenoidal path along the field lines
within a near magnetic field, such as occurs in a transmission line pulse.
Y4
- Induction of Electrostatic Repulsion by Strong Gravity (The
Link between Gravity and Electromagnetism)
Abstract.
The radial lines of force that are associated with Gauss's law indicate
the presence of fluid-like sinks and sources in matter, whether or not we
know where these lead to. This article will examine how two sinks can be
either mutually attractive or mutually repulsive depending on the rate of
flow.
Z4
- The Pendulum and the Magnetic Connection
Abstract.
When analyzing pendulum motion, textbooks avoid invoking centrifugal force.
All upward acting forces are accounted for by the tension in the rod. This
tension must however be greater in magnitude than gravity in order for a
net upward force to be possible. The role of centrifugal force in both the
simple pendulum and the conical pendulum will therefore be re-examined, and
a connection with magnetic repulsion will be suggested.
A5
- An Interpretation of Faraday's Lines of Force
Abstract.
The magnetic field is solenoidal, yet the Biot-Savart Law which is the
textbook equation for the magnetic field, indicates the existence of a singularity
owing to the fact that it involves an inverse square law in distance. This
dilemma is solved within the context that an individual magnetic line of
force constitutes a double helix of sinks and sources closed on itself to
form a toroidal ring vortex.
- - - - -
4.X.2019:
With the following 7 last papers, F.D. Tombe concludes his monumental work
aiming to a comparsion betewen classical Maxwell electromagnetism and the
(special) theory of relativity introduced by Albert Einstein.
B5 - The Full
Significance of the Speed of Light
Abstract.
In the year 1855, German physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch
performed a landmark experiment of profound significance. By discharging a
Leyden jar (a capacitor), they linked the speed of light to the ratio between
electrostatic and electrodynamic units of charge. This experiment was electromagnetism's
Rosetta Stone because the result can be used to, (i) identify the speed of
light as the speed of circulation of electric current, (ii) identify the speed
of light as the speed of electromagnetic waves through a dielectric solid
that pervades all of space, while noting that inertial centrifugal force
and dipole fields share in common an inverse cube law in distance. The result
can also be used to, (iii) identify magnetic repulsion as a centrifugal force,
and hence to establish the double helix pattern that characterizes magnetic
lines of force.
C5
- Straight Line Motion
Abstract.
The straight line inertial path will be examined from the perspective that
it is caused by pressure equilibrium in a sea of tiny aethereal whirlpools
that are pressing against each other with centrifugal force while striving
to dilate. This is opposite to the traditional perspective whereby centrifugal
force is considered to be a consequence of the tendency of a body to move
in uniform straight line motion in the absence of any Newtonian forces.
D5 - Faraday's
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Abstract.
It will be shown how the magnetic vector potential, A, is a momentum
which is central to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, and how the
convective electromagnetic force E = v×B is the factor
which enables the total time derivative to be used in Faraday's law.
E5
- The Significance of the Inertial Forces in Electromagnetism
Abstract.
The centrifugal force and the Coriolis force will be described. There is
a controversy over whether these forces are real or fictitious. This controversy
will be examined in conjunction with its significance to electromagnetism.
F5 - Isotropy
in the Electromagnetic Field
Abstract.
In Part III of his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force, James Clerk
Maxwell introduces the concept of displacement current in connection with
the elasticity of the medium for the propagation of light. During the course
of Part III, the luminiferous medium changes from an anisotropic sea of molecular
vortices into an isotropic dielectric solid. An attempt will be made to reconcile
these two seemingly contradictory mediums.
G5 - Cable Telegraphy
and Poynting's Theorem
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the waves that travel
alongside the conducting wires in transmission lines relate to linear polarization.
This article will examine how these two phenomena may or may not be treated
using the same basic electromagnetic wave equations.
G5' - Cable
Telegraphy and Poynting's Theorem
(A new revised version of the previous paper: 14.II.2020)
Abstract.
Wireless EM radiation relates to magnetization while the magnetic
fields that travel alongside the conducting wires in transmission lines are
commonly associated with capacitance and linear polarization. This article
will examine how these two phenomena may or may not be treated using the
same basic electromagnetic wave equations.
H5 - Radiation
Pressure and E = mc2
Abstract.
To show that the equation E = mc2 was already implicit in Maxwell's
1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force and that it doesn't mean that
mass is equivalent to energy, but rather it relates to the propagation of
electromagnetic radiation through an elastic solid.
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